The Second World War united previously irreconcilable rivals into one military-political camp. The common enemy - Hitlerite Germany, as well as Italy and Japan, became the main bringing together factor of the socialist Soviet Union and capitalist Great Britain and the USA, as well as many other countries. Attacking the Soviet Union, Hitler deeply miscalculated, thinking that an alliance between the Soviet East and the bourgeois West is impossible in principle. The sympathies of all mankind were on the side of the so-called. " Big three"Represented by the USSR, USA and Great Britain. The relationship between these countries will be discussed in this lesson.

International conferences during the Second World War

Background

During the first years of the war, Germany was able to capture most of Europe, but in 1942 a radical turning point came in the war. The Battle of Stalingrad became a turning point in the European zone (on November 19, 1942, the Soviet offensive began). In the Pacific Ocean - the Battle of Midway Atoll in July 1942 ().

Diplomacy played an important role in bringing about a radical change in the war. In 1941-1942. As a result of the signing of a number of agreements, an anti-Hitler coalition was formed.

Developments

March 1941 - the American Congress adopted the Lend-Lease Act, which allowed the American president to provide material assistance to any country whose defense was of strategic importance to the United States.

12 July 1941 - the Anglo-Soviet agreement on joint actions against Germany was signed.

August 14, 1941 - The Atlantic Charter was signed by US President F. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister W. Churchill. The document formulated the meaning and goals of the confrontation between democratic regimes and Nazi Germany. The charter played a fundamental role in building the coalition.

September - October 1941 - a meeting of the foreign ministers of three countries (England, USA, USSR) in Moscow. Decisions were made to supply the United States with weapons, transport and foodstuffs for the Soviet Union and to provide a loan of $ 1 billion.

January 1, 1942 - the Washington Declaration (United Nations Declaration) was adopted, which was signed by 26 states. Until 1945, 19 more states declared their solidarity with it.

January 21, 1943 - the meeting of Roosevelt and Churchill in Casablanca. It was decided to continue the war until Germany's unconditional surrender.

August 1944 - Conference in Dumbarton Oaks (USA), at which the structure of the main bodies of the UN (United Nations) was approved.

1944 g. - Bretton Woods Conference. Creation of the IMF (International Monetary Fund) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. Formation of a new world monetary system.

April 25, 1945 - The founding conference of the UN, which was attended by 42 states. This conference defined the post-war world order and the role of the UN.

July 17, 1945 - the beginning of the Potsdam Conference of the heads of Great Britain, the USSR, the USA (Churchill, Stalin and Truman). She laid the foundations of the post-war world order (see the lesson "The end of World War II. Post-war settlement").

Participants

Winston Churchill - Prime Minister of Great Britain (1940-1945; 1951-1955). One of the initiators of the creation of the anti-Hitler coalition with the participation of the USA and the USSR. In post-war Europe, he advocated limiting the influence of the USSR in the world. His Fulton speech was a step towards the Cold War.

F. Roosevelt - President of the United States (1933-1945). Contributed to the creation of the anti-Hitler coalition; advocated assistance to Great Britain, France and the USSR in the fight against Germany.

Conclusion

At international conferences, spheres of influence were divided between the three largest powers - Great Britain, the USA and the USSR. Towards the end of the war, what united the countries (the fight against fascism) gradually faded away; contradictions are growing between countries, which will lead after the end of the war to a cold war and an arms race ().

The Potsdam conference summed up the results of the war and played an important role in shaping the post-war world order (see the lesson "The end of World War II. Post-war settlement").

Abstract

As soon as Germany attacked the USSR, British Prime Minister and implacable enemy of the Soviet Union Winston Churchill was the first politician to openly support the USSR in its fight against the enemy. Discarding all ideological contradictions, the Soviet Union and Great Britain began to cooperate against the enemy - Nazi Germany. A little later, after the Japanese attack on the American naval base Pearl Harbor, the United States joined the coalition.

During the second half of 1941 - 1942. the leaders' meetings were in the nature of bilateral meetings. American President Roosevelt "met" with the leader of the USSR I.V. Stalin through his ambassador Harriman. A number of agreements were concluded between the parties, including with the Americans on the Lend-Lease issue - the supply of food and equipment and weapons to the USSR.

Finally, in november 1943 the leaders of the leading world powers, whose armies fought against Hitler's Germany, Stalin (USSR), Churchill (Great Britain) and Roosevelt (USA), decided to meet to discuss their further actions in the Iranian city of Tehran. This meeting went down in history as “ Tehran conference"(Fig. 1). The main issue of the conference was the question of opening a second front in Europe. The allies of the USSR constantly delayed this discovery, citing the lack of forces and means, therefore the Soviet Union assumed the main burden of waging the war with Germany.

Figure: 1. Tehran conference. W. Churchill's birthday ()

British leader Winston Churchill proposed opening a second front in Europe in the Balkans, but then it would be easier for the Germans to defend themselves. Stalin suggested that the Allies open a second front in northern France and move towards the Red Army. In this he was supported by Roosevelt, who was interested in the fastest defeat of Germany, since he needed help in the war with Japan.

The Tehran conference was the first international conference at which not only the question of opening the Second Front was raised, but also the question of the future of the world order.

IN february 1945 The heads of the allied countries met in the Crimean city of Yalta (Fig. 2). confirmed the following points of agreements:

1. After the defeat of Germany, the USSR will enter the war with Japan

2. Allies recognize the eastern borders of the USSR

3. The Powers establish the successor to the League of Nations - the United Nations Organization (UN).

Figure: 2. Yalta conference ()

After signing the German Surrender Act, summer 1945, in Potsdam the leaders of the victorious countries gathered - from the USSR I.V. Stalin, US President-elect Truman and UK new Prime Minister Attlee (Fig. 3). The allies have developed common principles for conducting a new world politics and have defined new borders in Europe and the world.

So, the countries of Eastern and Southeast Europe - Romania, Hungary, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Albania, Czechoslovakia - fell into the sphere of influence of the Soviet Union. Poland was re-created, which was also included in the Soviet orbit.

As territorial increments, East Prussia with the city of Königsberg was included in the USSR.

By decision of the Potsdam Conference Germany was divided into 4 zones of occupation, and had to pay reparations to the winners in the amount of 20 billion dollars, half of which was to be received by the USSR.

In the Far East, Japan was also required to pay large sum and give up part of the land. So, the Kuriles, South Sakhalin, Port Arthur returned to the USSR.

Figure: 3. Potsdam conference ()

1. Aleksashkina L.N. General history. XX - early XXI century. - M .: Mnemosina, 2011.

2. Zagladin N.V. General history. XX century. Textbook for grade 11. - M .: Russian word, 2009.

3. Plenkov O.Yu., Andreevskaya T.P., Shevchenko S.V. General history. Grade 11 / Ed. Myasnikova V.S. - M., 2011.

2. Livadia Palace Museum ().

1. Why did the rapprochement of the previously irreconcilable ideological enemies - Great Britain and the USSR - become possible? Explain.

2. Describe the decisions of 3 conferences of the "Big Three".

3. Which of the Big Three conferences was the most significant? Explain your choice.

Of the above (see ". § 1) forms of diplomatic activity, special attention should be paid to international intergovernmental conferences as temporary collective bodies of the participating States, convened to discuss and resolve agreed tasks, having a certain organizational structure and competence, enshrined in the rules of procedure. The term "international conferences" covers not only the forms of diplomatic activity, which are called conferences, but also meetings, meetings, etc.

Over the past century, the most famous have become: The Hague Peace Conferences of 1899 and 1907, the Versailles Conference of 1919, the United Nations Conference on International Organization in San Francisco 1945, the Paris Peace Conference of 1946, the Vienna Conference on the Law of International Treaties 1968-1969, UN Conference on the Law of the Sea 1958, 1960, 1973-1982, Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE), held during 1973-1994 in different forms (meetings at the highest level, meetings of representatives of states, conferences on confidence-building measures, conferences on the human dimension).

During the Second World War, three conferences of the leaders of the USSR, USA, Great Britain were held - Tehran 1943, Crimean (Yalta) 1945 and Potsdam 1945, which played an outstanding role in strengthening the military and political cooperation of the countries of the anti-Hitler coalition in the joint struggle against fascism.

The most common are ad hoc conferences * convened either by the initiating states or within the framework and under the auspices of intergovernmental organizations. Such conferences are held to solve the following problems:

* For a given case, for a specific purpose.

1) conclusion of a peace treaty - peace conferences (for example, the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Paris Peace Conference of 1946); 2) creation of an international organization (United Nations Conference on International Organization in San Francisco 1945, III Conference of Heads of State and Government of Independent African Countries in Addis Ababa 1963, proclaiming the creation of the Organization of African Unity (OAU); 3) adoption of a joint statements (Tehran Conference on Human Rights 1968, Stockholm Conference on Environmental Issues 1972); 4) development and adoption of treaties and conventions on various special issues (Geneva Diplomatic Conference 1949, Vienna Diplomatic Conference 1961 on Diplomatic Law, UN Conference on the Law of the Sea 1958, 1960, 1973-1982, UN Conference " and the use of outer space for peaceful purposes 1968, 1982, etc.).

The practice of holding special conferences to review the implementation of international treaties has spread (for example, in accordance with Article VIII of the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, every five years after the Treaty enters into force in Geneva, a Conference of the Parties to the Treaty is convened to review how this Treaty operates).

The conferences of the heads of state and government of the non-aligned countries, unlike the ad hoc conference, have been held periodically since 1970 with an interval of three years and represent the highest forum of the non-aligned movement.

The order of the conference is coordinated at preliminary meetings. The rules of the conference procedure are also developed here. If a conference is convened under the auspices of an intergovernmental organization, then the time and place of its convocation are fixed in the relevant resolutions of the organization.

The rules of procedure are developed every time, because there are no uniform requirements in the practice of international relations for holding international conferences. These rules are adopted on behalf of the delegations participating in the conference, and thus constitute a legal document regulating: the procedure for approving the agenda; election of the governing bodies of the conference; the procedure for the formation of subsidiary bodies - committees, working groups, the election of their chairpersons and rapporteurs; the procedure for the formation and responsibilities of the conference secretariat; powers of the chairman; required quorum to get started; sequence of performances; the procedure for submitting proposals and amendments; voting procedure; conditions for the participation of observers; working and official languages \u200b\u200bof the conference.

Voting procedures are subject to the rules of procedure applicable to each conference. Each delegation usually has one vote. At the request of any delegation, voting may be by roll-call, with the vote of each representative participating in the vote being recorded in the minutes.

According to some rules of procedure, a decision requires 2/3 of the number of those present and voting. For example, Rule 39 III of the UN Conference on the Law of the Sea provided: “Decisions of the Conference on all matters of substance, including the adoption of the text of the Law of the Sea Convention as a whole, shall be taken by a two-thirds majority of the representatives present and voting, provided that such majority includes at least most of the States participating in this session of the Conference. " However, some conferences adopt Consensus Rules (CSCE). Sometimes a combined method is used: some decisions are made the traditional way - by voting, others - by consensus (Rules 37, 39 of the III UN Conference on the Law of the Sea 1973-1982).

The rules of procedure define the languages \u200b\u200bused in the conference. Usually they are divided into official (at which all official decisions of the conference are published) and working (at which the minutes are kept).

Conference delegates as representatives of states must have all the necessary capabilities to carry out their tasks. Therefore, a rule has developed to grant the heads and members of delegations immunities and privileges that are established for the heads and employees of diplomatic missions.

Leading officials are elected from among the delegations. These include: the chairman (as a rule, a representative of the state in whose territory the conference is held, or the initiating country), vice-chairmen, general rapporteur; chairman, vice-chairman and rapporteur of each committee; the chairman of the editorial committee and other officials. Sometimes a general committee is formed to assist the chairman in the overall management of the conference. There are cases when the conference was chaired by several chairmen. This was the case, for example, in San Francisco at the 1945 United Nations Conference, the chairmen of which were elected the heads of the delegations of four states that acted as the initiators of convening this conference (the inviting powers) - the USSR, the USA, Great Britain, and China.

The conference is held in the form of plenary sessions and meetings of committees and working groups. Organizational and technical issues are decided by the secretariat.

The conference ends either with the adoption of an agreed text of an international treaty, if that was its purpose (often an adopted treaty is opened for signing by the states participating in the conference on the same day), or with the approval of the final document in the form of a final act (Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe) , protocol (Protocol of the Berlin (Potsdam) Conference of the Three Great Powers), declarations and resolutions (for example, the 1968 Tehran Conference on Human Rights adopted 29 resolutions containing various kinds of requests, proposals, appeals and recommendations addressed to states and intergovernmental organizations) , which are signed by the heads of delegations, depending on the significance of the adopted document. These acts, as a rule, are of a recommendatory nature, however, such documents of the conference are also known, which also contain normative provisions binding on states (see § 4, Chapter 5).

Literature

Ashavsky B.M. Intergovernmental conferences. M.,

Blishchenko I.P. Diplomatic Law. M., 1990.

Bobylev G.V., Zubkov N.G. Basics of consular service. M., 1986.

Bogdanov O. V. Immunity of representatives of states at the UN // Sov. yearbook of international law. 1973. M., 1975.

Ganyushkin B.V. Diplomatic law of international organizations. M., 1972.

A. G. Kovalev The ABC of Diplomacy. M., 1988.

A. A. Kovalev Privileges and immunities in modern international law, M., 1986.

Kuznetsov S.A. Representatives of states in international organizations. M., 1980.

Levin D. B. Diplomatic immunity. M.-L., 1949.

Petrenko N.I. Basics of consular law. M., 1986.

Sandrovsky K. K. The right to external relations. Kiev, 1986.

To the content of the book: International law

See also:

47. International conferences of the heads of the countries of the anti-Hitler coalition and their decisions.

ANTIGITLER COALITION, a military-political alliance led by the USSR, USA and Great Britain against the Axis countries (Germany, Italy, Japan) during the Second World War.

The anti-Hitler coalition was officially formed on January 1, 1942, when 26 states that declared war on Germany or its allies came out with the Washington Declaration of the United Nations, announcing their intention to direct all their efforts to fight against the Axis countries.

The activities of the anti-Hitler coalition were determined by the decisions of the main participating countries. The general political and military strategy was developed at the meetings of their leaders J.V. Stalin, F.D. Roosevelt (from April 1945 - G. Trumen), W. Churchill and the foreign ministers in Moscow (October 19-30, 1943), Tehran ( November 28 - December 1, 1943), Yalta (February 4-11, 1945) and Potsdam (July 17 - August 2, 1945).

Until mid-1943, there was no unity on the question of the opening of a second front by the United States and Great Britain in Western Europe, and the Red Army had to bear the burden of the war on the European continent alone. The British strategy involved the creation and gradual shrinking of the ring around Germany by striking in secondary directions (North Africa, the Middle East) and the destruction of its military and economic potential by systematic bombing of German cities and industrial facilities. The Americans considered it necessary to land in France already in 1942, however, under pressure from W. Churchill, they abandoned these plans and agreed to an operation to seize French North Africa. It was only at the Quebec Conference in August 1943 that F.D. Roosevelt and W. Churchill finally made the decision on the landing operation in France in May 1944 and confirmed it at the Tehran Conference; for its part, Moscow pledged to launch an offensive on the Eastern Front to facilitate the Allied landings.

At the same time, the Soviet Union in 1941-1943 invariably rejected the demand of the United States and Great Britain to declare war on Japan. At the Tehran conference, JV Stalin promised to enter the war in it, but only after Germany's surrender. At the Yalta conference, he obtained from the allies, as a condition for the start of hostilities, their consent to the return to the USSR of the territories lost by Russia in the Peace of Portsmouth in 1905, and the transfer of the Kuril Islands to him.

From the end of 1943, the problems of post-war settlement came to the fore in inter-allied relations. At the Moscow and Tehran conferences, it was decided to create an international organization after the end of the war with the participation of all countries to preserve global peace and security.

An important place was occupied by the question of the political future of Germany. In Tehran, J.V. Stalin rejected F.D. Roosevelt's proposal to partition it into five autonomous states and the project developed by W. Churchill to separate North Germany (Prussia) from South and to include the latter in the Danube Federation together with Austria and Hungary. The Potsdam conferences agreed on the principles of the post-war structure of Germany (demilitarization, denazification, democratization, economic decentralization) and decided to divide it into four occupation zones (Soviet, American, British and French) with a single governing body (Control Council), on the size and order payment of reparations by it, on the establishment of its eastern border along the Oder and Neisse rivers, on the division of East Prussia between the USSR and Poland and the transfer of the last Danzig (Gdansk), on the resettlement of the Germans who lived in Poland, Czechoslovakia and Hungary to Germany.

Other major political decisions of the leaders of the anti-Hitler coalition were decisions on the restoration of Austria's independence and the democratic reconstruction of Italy (Moscow Conference), on the preservation of Iran's sovereignty and territorial integrity and on large-scale assistance to the partisan movement in Yugoslavia (Tehran Conference), on the creation of a provisional Yugoslav government based on the National the Liberation Committee headed by I. Broz Tito and the transfer of all Soviet citizens liberated by the allies to the USSR (Yalta Conference).

The anti-Hitler coalition played an important role in achieving victory over Germany and its allies and became the foundation of the United Nations.

The beginning Soviet-British negotiations on joint actions in the war against Germany ended with the signing of an agreement on July 12, 1941 in Moscow. Both sides pledged not to conclude a separate peace with Germany. Later, an agreement on trade and loans was signed. The statement that his country will render “all possible assistance to the Soviet Union” in the fight against Hitlerism was also made by US President F. Roosevelt. He, in accordance with the law on lend-lease, agreed to provide the USSR with the first interest-free loan of $ 1 billion. The general principles of the national policy of the United States and Great Britain during the Second World War were set forth in the Atlantic Charter (August 1941). This Anglo-American declaration, developed at the meeting between Roosevelt and Churchill, defined the goals of the Allies in the Royne. On September 24, 1941, the Soviet Union joined this charter, expressing its agreement with its basic principles. The formation of the anti-Hitler coalition was facilitated by the holding in the autumn of 1941 of a Moscow conference with the participation of representatives of the USSR, the USA and Great Britain on the issue of military supplies. A tripartite agreement was signed on the supply of arms, military equipment and food to the USSR. A significant role in the development of military-political cooperation was played by the “Declaration of the United Nations” signed in Washington in January 1942, which was joined by 26 states that were at war with Germany. The process of creating a coalition ended with the signing of the Soviet-British agreement of May 26 and the Soviet-American agreement of June 1942 on an alliance in the war against Germany and on cooperation and mutual assistance after the war. In the course of the 1945 winter campaign, coordination of the actions of the armed forces of the allies in the anti-Hitler coalition developed. When the Anglo-American troops found themselves in a difficult situation in the Ardennes, the Soviet armies, at Churchill's request earlier than planned, launched an offensive on a wide front from the Baltic to the Carpathians, thereby providing effective assistance to the Allies. As the countries of the anti-Hitler coalition, the USSR, the USA and Great Britain resolved the issues of the fate of defeated Germany, the punishment of Nazi criminals and the post-war world order at conferences in Tehran, Yalta and Potsdam. However, during the implementation of a number of these agreements after the war, during the development of the conditions for a post-war settlement in Europe, disagreements arose that led to the confrontation between the USSR and the former allies, the bipolarization of the world and the Cold War.

Of the forms of diplomatic activity listed above (see ". § 1), international intergovernmental conferences deserve special attention as temporary collective bodies of the participating States, convened to discuss and resolve agreed tasks, having a certain organizational structure and competence, enshrined in the rules of procedure. the term "international conferences" covers not only forms of diplomatic activity, which are called conferences, but also meetings, meetings, etc.

Over the past century, the most famous have gained: The Hague Peace Conferences of 1899 and 1907, the Versailles Conference of 1919, the United Nations Conference on International Organization in San Francisco 1945, the Paris Peace Conference of 1946, the Vienna Conference on the Law of International Treaties 1968-1969, UN Conference on the Law of the Sea 1958, 1960, 1973-1982, Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE), held during 1973-1994 in various forms (summits, meetings of representatives of states, conferences on confidence-building measures, conferences on the human dimension)

During the Second World War, three conferences of the leaders of the USSR, USA, Great Britain were held - Note that Tehran 1943, Crimean (Yalta) 1945 and Potsdam 1945, which played an outstanding role in strengthening the military and political cooperation of the countries of the anti-Hitler coalition in joint fight against fascism.

The most common will be ad hoc conferences * convened either by the initiating States or within and under the auspices of intergovernmental organizations. Such conferences are held to solve the following problems:

* For a given case, for a specific purpose.

1) conclusion of a peace treaty - peace conferences (for example, the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Paris Peace Conference of 1946); 2) creation of an international organization (United Nations Conference on International Organization in San Francisco 1945, III Conference of Heads of State and Government of independent African countries in Addis Ababa 1963, proclaiming the creation of the Organization of African Unity (OAU); 3) adoption of a joint statements (Note that tehran conference Human Rights 1968, Stockholm Environmental Conference 1972); 4) development and adoption of treaties and conventions on various special issues (Geneva Diplomatic Conference 1949, Vienna Diplomatic Conference 1961 on diplomatic law, UN conference on the law of the sea 1958, 1960, 1973-1982, UN conference " and the use of outer space for peaceful purposes 1968, 1982, etc.)

It is worth saying that the practice of holding special conferences to review the implementation of international treaties has become widespread (for example, in accordance with Article VIII of the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, every five years after the Treaty enters into force in Geneva, a Conference of the Parties to the Treaty is convened to review how this Treaty operates )

The conferences of heads of state and government of non-aligned countries, in contrast to the ad hoc conference, have been held periodically since 1970 with an interval of three years and represent the highest forum of the non-aligned movement.

The order of the conference is coordinated at preliminary meetings. The rules of the conference procedure are also developed here. If the conference is convened under the auspices of an intergovernmental organization, the time and place of its convocation are fixed in the relevant resolutions of the organization.

The rules of procedure are developed every time, since there are no uniform requirements in the practice of international relations for holding international conferences. These rules are adopted on behalf of the delegations participating in the conference, and thus constitute a legal document regulating: the procedure for approving the agenda; election of the governing bodies of the conference; the procedure for the formation of subsidiary bodies - committees, working groups, the election of their chairpersons and rapporteurs; the procedure for the formation and responsibilities of the conference secretariat; powers of the chairman; required quorum to get started; sequence of performances; the procedure for submitting proposals and amendments; voting procedure; conditions for the participation of observers; working and official languages \u200b\u200bof the conference.

Voting procedures are subject to the rules of procedure applicable to each conference. Note that each delegation usually has one vote. At the request of any delegation, voting may be by roll-call, with the vote of each representative participating in the voting being recorded in the minutes.

According to certain rules of procedure, it is extremely important for a decision to be made 2/3 of the number of those present and taking part in the voting. For example, Rule 39 of the III UN Conference on the Law of the Sea provided: "Decisions of the Conference on all matters of substance, including the adoption of the text of the Law of the Sea Convention as a whole, shall be taken by a two-thirds majority of the representatives present and voting, provided that such majority contains themselves at least the majority of the States participating in the ϶ᴛᴏth session of the Conference. " At the same time, at some conferences the rules of consensus are adopted (CSCE). Sometimes a combined method is used: some decisions are made in the traditional way - by voting, others - on the basis of consensus (rules 37, 39 of the III UN Conference on the Law of the Sea 1973-1982)

The rules of procedure define the languages \u200b\u200bused at the conference. Usually they are divided into official (on which all the official decisions of the conference are published) and working (on which the minutes are kept)

Conference delegates, as representatives of states, must have all the necessary capabilities to fulfill their tasks. Therefore, a rule has developed to grant the heads and members of delegations immunities and privileges that are established for the heads and employees of diplomatic missions.

Leading officials are elected from among the delegations. These include: the chairman (as a rule, a representative of the state on whose territory the conference is held, or the initiating country), deputy chairmen, general rapporteur; chairman, vice-chairman and rapporteur of each committee; the chairman of the editorial committee and other officials. Sometimes a general committee is formed to assist the chairman in the overall management of the conference. There are cases when the conference was chaired by several chairmen. This was the case, for example, in San Francisco at the 1945 United Nations Conference, the chairmen of which were the heads of the delegations of four states that acted as initiators of the convocation of the ϶ᴛᴏ conference (inviting powers) - the USSR, USA, Great Britain, China.

The conference is held in the form of plenary sessions and meetings of committees and working groups. Organizational and technical issues are decided by the secretariat.

The conference ends either with the adoption of an agreed text of an international treaty, if that was its purpose (often an adopted treaty is opened for signing by the states participating in the conference on the same day), or with the approval of the final document in the form of a final act (Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe) , protocol (Protocol of the Berlin (Potsdam) Conference of the Three Great Powers), declarations and resolutions (for example, Note that the 1968 Tehran Conference on Human Rights adopted 29 resolutions containing various kinds of requests, proposals, calls and recommendations addressed to states and intergovernmental organizations), which are signed by the heads of delegations, depending on the significance of the adopted document. These acts traditionally have a recommendatory character, however, such conference documents are also known, which also contain normative provisions that are binding on states (see § 4, Chapter 5)

Literature

Ashavsky BM Intergovernmental conferences. M.,

Blishchenko I.P. Diplomatic law. M., 1990.

Bobylev G.V., Zubkov N.G.
It is worth noting that the basics of the consular service. M., 1986.

Bogdanov OV Immunity of representatives of states at the UN // Sov. yearbook of international law. 1973. M., 1975.

Ganyushkin B.V. Diplomatic law of international organizations. M., 1972.

Kovalev A.G. The ABC of Diplomacy. M., 1988.

Kovalev A.A. Privileges and immunities in modern international law, M., 1986.

Kuznetsov S. A. Representatives of states in international organizations. M., 1980.

Levin D. B. Diplomatic immunity. M.-L., 1949.

Petrenko N.I.
It is worth noting that the basics of consular law. M., 1986.

Sandrovsky K.K.The right of external relations. Kiev, 1986.

Heads of Delegations:
USSR - Ambassador to the USA A.A. Gromyko;
USA - Deputy Secretary of State Edward Stettinius;
Great Britain - Deputy Foreign Minister Alexander Cadogan.

By the beginning of 1944, the outcome of the War did not raise doubts among the members of the Anti-Hitler coalition... The problem of the post-war organization and ensuring a lasting peace arose. In this regard, there is an urgent need to create an international organization to maintain peace and security. This issue, discussed at the Third Moscow Conference, was reflected in its final document "Declaration of four states on the question of general security", and was later considered at the Tehran conference.

The diplomatic departments of the allied countries, implementing the decisions of the previous conferences, carefully prepared for a new round of negotiations on this issue. At the suggestion of the American side, it was decided to hold the meeting in the United States on the outskirts of Washington, in an area belonging to Harvard University, Dumbarton Oaks.

On the one hand, the conference participants represented countries that were significantly different in political aspirations and interests pursued after the end of the War. But on the other hand, all of them were united by a common goal: victory over the aggressor and the subsequent creation of a system capable of resisting the outbreak of armed conflicts in the future. The delegations gathered at the conference after familiarizing themselves with the preliminary proposals of other parties on the creation of an international security organization, which served as the basis for the negotiations. In preparing the memoranda, the conference participants took into account the shortcomings revealed in the work of the international League of Nations.

The participants of the meeting managed to quickly come to a mutually acceptable solution on the issues of goals, principles and main bodies of the future organization. It was assumed that the Security Council - a circle of elected states with permanent and non-permanent membership - would operate within the framework of the organization being created. The conference participants recognized the right to be permanent members of the Security Council. The greatest controversy in the Allies' points of view came to light during discussions on initial membership and voting procedures in the Security Council.

On September 28, at the final meeting of the conference, the heads of delegations signed the final document "Proposals for the creation of a General International Security Organization", which was proposed to be called "United Nations". The next day, a joint communiqué was issued following the conference.

Despite the fact that the conference did not solve all the problems that arose during the discussion of the creation of the UN, its contribution to the development of the Charter of the organization is very great. The proposals signed at the conference had a great impact on the entire post-war world order.

Heads of Delegations:

Great Britain - Prime Minister Winston Churchill.

Averell Harriman, the American ambassador to the USSR, took part in the negotiations as an observer from the United States.

On September 27, 1944, unexpectedly for the Soviet side, the British Prime Minister expressed his desire to come to the Soviet capital for negotiations. The reason for this haste was the success of the Red Army's offensive in Europe.who interfered with the interests of Great Britain in the Balkans.

Following the policy of strengthening relations between the allies, the Soviet side confirmed its readiness to receive British leaders. On October 9, Anglo-Soviet negotiations began in Moscow.

Among the list of issues discussed were questions about the prospects for post-war Germany, about the policy towards Poland, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria. Churchill was primarily concerned about the loss of British influence in Southeast and Eastern Europe.

At the tripartite meetings, the sides heard reports on the state of affairs on all fronts and confirmed their readiness to continue cooperating in the conduct of military operations against the aggressor. On a number of issues, the conference participants were able to agree on their positions, others that caused heated disputes, - the Polish question, the fate of post-war Germany, the Far East problems - to continue to be discussed at a future meeting.

Heads of Delegations:
USSR - Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars I.V. Stalin;
Great Britain - Prime Minister Winston Churchill;
USA - President Franklin Roosevelt.

By the beginning of 1945, the War entered its final stage. Soviet troops, having deprived Germany of such allies as Romania, Finland, Bulgaria, Hungary, were fighting on European territory and, in particular, in Germany itself. On the other hand, on June 6, 1944, the Allied forces finally opened a second front in Western Europe. Hitler's armies were caught between two fires - between the eastern (Russian) and western (Anglo-American) fronts. In an effort to break out of these clutches, on December 16, 1944, the Hitlerite command made a very successful attempt at a counteroffensive on the western front. However, the allies were soon able to restore the situation, thanks to the beginning ahead of time offensive on the Russian front. By the time the Crimean Conference began, Soviet troops were 60 kilometers from Berlin, Anglo-American troops were 500 kilometers away. The new military and foreign policy situation in the world required the allies to immediately resolve a wide range of urgent issues.

The number of problems to be considered at the conference led to the large number of delegations: from heads of state, foreign ministers and chiefs of staff to experts, advisers, etc. On the eve of the opening of the conference, on February 3, British and American delegations arrived in Crimea. Immediately prior to this visit, foreign delegations held a joint conference in Malta, where the Allies discussed their strategic plans in Western Europe. Those who arrived in Crimea were accommodated in the palaces of Yalta, which survived the enemy invasion. The British delegation - in the Vorontsov Palace of Alupka, the American - in the Livadia Palace, the Soviet - in the Yusupov Palace in Koreiz. The agenda included all the issues that the participants of the meeting wanted to bring up for discussion... Many of them have already been considered at previous conferences.

At the first meeting of the conference, the parties began to agree on their military plans to achieve an early and final victory over the aggressor. The gradual rapprochement of the eastern and western fronts required their strict coordination, which was entrusted to the military headquarters.

In the face of the approaching Victory, the question arose about the future of defeated Germany. The delegations discussed the terms of Germany's unconditional surrender, reviewed the agreements on the zones of its occupation and on the management of "Greater Berlin" and on the control mechanism in Germany, developed by the European Consulting Commission. The question of the procedure for the dismemberment of Germany, which caused a heated discussion, was referred to a special commission. The Allies signed a special protocol on the issue of collecting reparations.

The delegates paid much attention to the discussion of the creation of the UN, continuing the work begun at the previous conferences. The allies managed to agree on a number of controversial issuesconcerning the nature of this organization and decided to convene a founding conference in San Francisco.

The conference participants made a decision on the Polish issue, worked out recommendations on the Yugoslav issue. The Declaration on a Liberated Europe was signed. After reaching an agreement between Stalin and Roosevelt on the conditions for the entry of the USSR into the war against Japan, on the final day of the conference, a trilateral agreement was signed on this issue.

The conference in Yalta was of great importance for the fate of post-war Europe. Here the parties actually agreed on the spheres of influence on this continent after the War. As the heads of the Anti-Hitler coalition, the Allies had a unique opportunity to shape the history of European states.

By the time the conference began, there was very little time left before the end of the War. The further the formidable shadow of the common enemy moved away, the sharper the differences in the approaches of the allied states to the solution international issues ... The death of its President Roosevelt on April 12 also introduced changes in the US foreign policy, after which Harry Truman took over the leadership of the state.

On March 5, invitations were sent out on behalf of the governments of the USA, USSR, United Kingdom and China to attend the conference to 39 countries. A little later, Syria and Lebanon were invited, so that together with France, the number of participants increased to 42 delegations. In accordance with the decisions worked out at previous meetings, all countries that signed the Declaration of the United Nations on January 1, 1942 and subsequently joined it and declared war on the Hitlerite bloc before March 1, 1945, were invited. However, already in the course of the conference, several more states received invitations to participate.

The number of diplomatic contingent arriving in San Francisco from different countries, was a record one in the history of international conferences. 282 delegates, more than one and a half thousand experts, advisers and staff - this is the general composition of the conference in San Francisco. The countries represented at the meeting had different social structures, levels of economic development, political systems and, as a result, ways of solving post-war problems. The conference had a lot of work to do to work out mutually acceptable solutions for the participants.

The meeting established a steering, executive, coordinating committees and a credentials committee. Based on the decisions of the Dumbarton Oaks conference and the "Proposals for the Creation of a General International Security Organization" adopted there, the participating states submitted their amendments and comments to the conference. By the deadline for submission of May 4, the total number of amendments to the UN Charter was 1,200. All of them were systematized and submitted to the relevant committees for consideration. In the period from May 2 to June 20, there was a committee period in the work of the conference, during which the text of the UN Charter was prepared.

The chapters included in the Charter of the new international organization demanded serious consideration by the delegates. The discussion of the chapters "goals and principles", "members of the organization", "main bodies", despite significant improvements, went without any particular complications. However, the chapters that followed caused a lot of controversy. A heated debate has flared up over issues concerning the General Assembly and the Security Council. As a result, the principle of unanimity of the permanent members of the Security Council was recognized as the key in the UN Charter... Much time in the work of the conference was devoted to considering the measures that the Security Council can carry out to maintain or restore international peace. Close attention was paid to the chapters dealing with international economic and social cooperation, an acute struggle unfolded when discussing the goals of international trusteeship and the colonial question. The International Court of Justice was established at the conference.

On June 26, the signing of the agreed text of the Charter by the conference participants began, starting with the four inviting states and France (permanent members of the Security Council) and further in alphabetical order. In the evening of the same day, a final meeting was held. The day of the entry into force of the UN Charter is considered October 24, when the last of the great powers received the USSR's ratification instrument, and the total number of letters exceeded the required majority.

Heads of Delegations:
USSR - Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars I.V. Stalin;
Great Britain - Prime Minister Winston Churchill (from 28 July - new Prime Minister Clement Attlee);
USA - President Harry Truman.

The Berlin conference was the first post-war meeting of the members of the Anti-Hitler coalition. Hitlerite Germany had by this time suffered a complete and crushing defeat, therefore main question, which was to be decided at the conference, was the German... After the end of the War, the social order and political structure of European states changed radically, which caused disagreements among the three great powers. Relations between the Allied Powers became more tense.

The agreements reached in the negotiations and consultations preceding the Berlin Conference were able to help resolve controversial issues and clear the way for its effective work. On July 15, 1945, delegations from the United States and Great Britain arrived in the Berlin suburb of Babelsberg, the next day - a Soviet delegation. On July 17, at 5 pm, the Berlin Conference began in Potsdam.

The central place in her work was occupied by the question of the future of Germany, to which much attention was paid many times at previous meetings. On the second day of work, the parties managed to find mutually acceptable solutions on the political principles of coordinated activities of the three states in Germany. Much more controversy was caused by the economic principles of the treatment of Germany, associated with the destruction of its military-economic potential, the collection of reparations and other financial and economic issues. By August 1, the text of the agreement "Political and economic principles to be guided by when dealing with Germany in the initial control period" was finally agreed. The objectives of the occupation of Germany, which formed the basis of this document, proclaimed the principles of its demilitarization, democratization, decentralization, decartelization and denazification.

As a result of the revision of the pre-war borders of the territory of Germany, its eastern region was ceded to Poland, and part of East Prussia with Konigsberg to the USSR. The parties came to an agreement on the division of the naval and merchant fleets of Germany. The issue of the main war criminals was considered, the list of which was decided to be published by September 1, 1945.

The conference participants discussed the general policy towards the countries of Germany's former allies in the war - Italy, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Finland. The newly formed Council of Foreign Ministers representing the USSR, USA, Great Britain, France and China was tasked with preparing peace treaties for these countries. After a sharp and lengthy polemic, the parties reached an agreement "On the conclusion of peace treaties and admission to the UN."

The heads of government discussed issues related to the entry of the USSR into the war against Japan, the military aspects of this war were discussed at a meeting of the chiefs of staff.

As a result of the conference, the heads of delegations signed on August 1 the Protocol of the Berlin Conference of the Three Great Powers and on August 2 - the Announcement of the Berlin Conference of the Three Powers.

Berlin conference became the third and last meeting at the highest level of the three countries participating in the Anti-Hitler Coalition. Serious contradictions in the positions and principles of international policy of the three great powers, which manifested themselves in the work of this conference, in the future led to a further aggravation of relations between them and to the Cold War.