Absolutely any human activity in modern world, if we are talking about even the slightest development and getting new information, involves the search for new data. But just looking for information is one thing, and looking for it professionally and competently is another. In this lesson, we will talk about what the search for information is generally, where and how to look for information, how to choose sources of information, analyze them and check for reliability, and also talk about the rules for finding information on the Internet and working with the data obtained.

What is information retrieval?

For the first time the concept of "information retrieval" was used in 1948 by the American mathematician and specialist in the field of computer technology Calvin Mooers, but it began to be found in the public literature only in 1950.

Initially, automated information retrieval (meaning information retrieval systems) was used to search for scientific data and related literature, and was used by universities and public libraries. However, with the advent and development of the Internet, information search has become widespread.

In fact, the search for information is the process of identifying in a certain array of text documents those data that relate to a specific topic and satisfy the specified conditions, and in which there is the necessary information and facts.

The process of searching for information consists of several successive stages, through which the collection of data, their processing and provision is ensured. Typically, searches are performed as follows:

• Information need is determined and a request is formulated
• A complex of sources is determined in which the necessary information may be located
• Information is extracted from identified sources
• The data is reviewed and the search results are evaluated

But, despite the fact that at the first stage you need to determine as correctly as possible what specific information you are going to look for (and this may seem paramount), it is the second stage that is of greatest importance, because it is an order of magnitude to decide where to look for information more difficult.

Where can I find information?

The question of where to look for information is really very important. And first of all, for the reason that it is an information age. And this, in turn, means that information search at the present time has its own specifics.

Let's remember: at the end of the last century and even the beginning of this century, people turned to specialized institutions in order to search for information. These include libraries, archives, card indexes and other similar information bodies. But if at that time, in order to find information about what interests, a person had to get together, leave the house, get to the right place, fill out an application, stand in line to give it, wait some time until the necessary literature is found, and then spend several hours searching for specific information and writing it down on paper, but today all these points can be bypassed, tk. almost every home has a computer and Internet access. Based on this, information bases (archives, libraries, etc.) that were relevant in the not so distant past today, if they have not lost their relevance, then, in any case, have a much smaller number of clients.

To find what you need on the Internet, you just need to enter a query in the search service line (remember the first stage), click the "Find" button and select the most suitable of the proposed options - Internet pages. We will continue to talk about the search for information on the Internet a little later, but for now we will note that neglect traditional ways search for information is still not worth it, and from time to time you can visit the library, card index or archive. In addition, this will allow you to diversify your activities, unwind and spend time in an unusual way, with benefit and interest.

Speaking about the selection of sources for information retrieval, one cannot but touch upon the issue of reliability, which speaks of the need to be able to analyze data sources and determine those that can be trusted.

How to choose reliable sources of information?

Any reasoning on the topic of what sources can be, and which should be considered reliable, one way or another, will lead us to a stylistic understanding of information sources, and there are a considerable number of them. Let's imagine only the most common ones:

• Scientific research with real empirical evidence
• Popular science reflections that include both factual empirical data and subjective points of view of people who are specialists in a particular field
• Philosophical treatises and discourses, distinguished by the greatest originality, subjectivity and presentation form
• Fiction, which, as a rule, serves as a source of information - food for thought, but not reliable empirical data
• Publicistic works - a category of works that are devoted to current phenomena and problems of current social life. Often in such works you can find a lot of reliable data and facts.
• Mass media - a complex of public transmission bodies such as television, radio, magazines and newspapers, as well as the Internet

You should always take into account the fact that almost no source of information data can be 100% reliable. The only exceptions are scientific research and, to some extent, popular science reflections, because, as already noted, they contain mainly facts confirmed by experience and officially recognized by the scientific community (there are, of course, both people and points views that are contrary to generally accepted, but in this article we will not consider particular cases).

Information from any other sources should be carefully checked in order to make sure it is up to date and true. But before proceeding directly to the principles of information selection, it will not be superfluous to say that for the very process of information retrieval it is very convenient and effective to use the ideas of a special philosophical direction - positivism, since due to this, in a number of cases (especially when it concerns the search for specific scientific data), many questions disappear by themselves.

A little bit about positivism

Positivism is a philosophical trend in the doctrine of the methods and procedures of scientific activity, in which it is believed that the only source of true and valid knowledge in general are only empirical (empirically confirmed) research.

Also, positivism says that philosophical research does not carry cognitive value. The basic premise of positivism is that any genuine (or positive) knowledge is a combination of the results of special sciences.

The main goal of positivism is to obtain objective knowledge, which is possible only through verification of information in practice. With this in mind, we can once again return to the idea that the most reliable sources of information are scientific research and popular science speculation.

Armed with this principle as basic, you can start using others.

Information selection principles

There are several principles of information selection:

The principle of visibility

The investigated information that corresponds to this principle has the following features:

• Information is available for perception and understanding
• The images formed by the information are reliable, since they can be modeled and their sources set
• Basic concepts, objects and phenomena can be demonstrated
• Information meets the requested criteria

Scientific principle

The scientific principle implies that the researched information corresponds to modern scientific data. If such a correspondence is observed, then it becomes possible to detect inaccuracies and errors, perceive other points of view, be guided by one's own argumentation and transform information, comparing it with another.

Briefly, the criteria of the scientific principle can be expressed as follows:

• The data correspond to the scientific understanding of the present
• If there are errors and inaccuracies in the data array, they are not capable of distorting the objective picture concerning the issue in question.
• Information can be in the form of a historical document that shows the path of development of specific scientific knowledge

The principle of relevance

According to this principle, information should be practical, topical, in line with modern demands, important at the current time. Such information is capable of arousing the greatest interest, in contrast to irrelevant information. Here you need to be guided by the following considerations:

• It is desirable that the information is close in time and worries the researcher
• Information can be a document that expands the understanding of the object under study
• Information must be of historical value or otherwise important
• Information can be a classic example of something that everyone knows

Systematic principle

If the information corresponds to the principle of systematicity, one can observe its repeated repetition in one or another interpretation within one source or in the same or another similar interpretation in other sources.

Thus, the information is noteworthy and can be applied if:

• Similar data can be found in different bases data
• Different interpretations do not destroy the integrity of ideas about the same problem

Accessibility principle

Often, difficulties in finding and processing information can be caused, firstly, by its content itself, and, secondly, by the style in which it is presented. For this reason, when working with information, it must be borne in mind that:

• Information should not only be comprehensible in terms of terminology, but also expand the researcher's thesaurus, due to which it will be perceived as interesting, but not trivial
• Information should correspond to the terminology that the researcher possesses, but it should cover a specific topic from different angles
• Information should also imply didactic processing, which removes the terminological barrier, in other words, information can be adapted for yourself, while retaining its meaning

Redundancy principle

The information under study should allow the researcher to highlight the main idea, find the hidden meaning, if any, come to an understanding of the author's position, determine the goals of presentation and develop the ability to correlate the content with the purpose.

The principles of information retrieval, which we talked about, can be applied to work with any data sources: books, documents, archival materials, newspapers and magazines, as well as Internet sites. In fact, these principles are universal, but here you should clearly understand for yourself that they can be quite enough to search for information in traditional sources, but when searching for information on the Internet, in order to avoid mistakes, you must follow another set of rules.

Rules for finding information on the Internet

For an experienced user, searching for information on the Internet is extremely simple, however, for people who are faced with the issue of automated information retrieval for the first time, this process may seem rather complicated due to the abundance of all kinds of search operators. Below we will look at a simple search and an advanced search, and also indicate additional information, which will be useful when searching for data on the Internet.

Finding information easily on the Internet

To begin with, it should be said that the most popular search engine in the world is "Google". In Russia, Yandex, [email protected] and Rambler are added to it.

To find the information you need, you just need to enter the query of interest in the search line of the service, for example, "Ivan the Terrible" or "How to drive a car correctly", and press "Find" or the "Enter" key on the computer keyboard. As a result, the search engine will return many pages that provide information on the requested query. Please note that the most relevant results are those located on the first page of the search engine.

Advanced search for information on the Internet

By its principle, an advanced search is no different from a simple one, except that you can specify additional parameters.

With the help of special filters, the user has the opportunity to set additional conditions for your request. This can be a restriction by region, a specific site, the desired language, the form of a word or phrase, the date the material was posted, or the type of file.

To activate these functions, you need to click on the special icon located on the search engine page. Will open extra menu, where the restrictions are set. Filters (restrictions) are reset by clicking the "Clear" button on the search engine page.

Additional Information

Each user should keep in mind that:

• Region restriction starts a search in the specified region. As a standard (By default), queries are usually issued for the region from which the user goes online.
• Restriction on the form of a request starts a search in those documents where words have the exact form that is in the request, but the order of words can change. The user can set the case of letters (uppercase or lowercase), any part of speech and form, i.e. declension, number, gender, case, etc. By default, search engines look for all forms of the requested word, i.e. if you ask "wrote", the search engine will search for "write", "write", etc. The search engine will not search for single root words.
• Site restriction launches a search for information among documents available on a specific site.
• Language restriction starts a search for information in the selected language. It is possible to set up a search in several languages \u200b\u200bat the same time.
• File type restriction triggers a search for a specific document format, i.e. when specifying the appropriate extensions, you can find text documents, audio and video files, documents intended to be opened by special programs and editors, etc. It is possible to set a search for several types of files at the same time.
• Restricting by update date starts a search based on the specific date the document was posted. The user can find a document from a specific date, month and year, as well as set a time interval - then the search engine will display all the information added during this period of time.

These rules will be enough to find information on the Internet. Anyone can master it, and it will take quite a bit of time - usually literally 2-3 three practical approaches are enough.

But what to do with the information found, because its entire array is not required for study? It doesn't matter how you prefer to search for data on a topic of interest - going to the library or clicking on sites while drinking coffee - in addition to having search skills, you also need to be able to process the material that you study. And for this, note-taking and some other techniques are the best suited.

Working with the information received: synopses, mind maps, reference diagrams and flowcharts

Abstract is considered to be the most popular and applied method of information processing. With this in mind, we decided to pay the most attention to this process, and present only introductory information on mental maps, reference diagrams and flowcharts.

What is a synopsis?

As we all know, a synopsis is a written text where the main points of any source of information are summarized sequentially and concisely. Abstracting implies bringing to a certain structure information taken from the original. The basis of this process is data systematization. Notes can be either precise excerpts and quotations, or they can be in the form of a free letter - the main thing is to keep meaning. The style in which the synopsis is kept is in most cases close to the original source.

With the correct compilation of the synopsis, the logical and semantic connection of the recorded is reflected. The abstract can be taken after a while or given to a friend, and reading and understanding the material will not cause difficulties. A competent outline contributes to the perception of even the most complex information, because it is expressed in an understandable form.

Summaries also differ in types, and in order to be able to correctly apply the type of synopsis that is more suitable for the work being done, these types must be able to distinguish.

Types of abstracts

Allocate planned notes, schematic planned notes, textual, thematic and free notes. Briefly about each of them.

Planned outline

The basis of the planned outline is the previously prepared material, and the outline itself includes headings and subheadings (paragraphs and subparagraphs). Each of the headings is accompanied by small text, which is why it has a clear structure.

The planned outline is most consistent with the preparation for seminars and public speaking. The clearer the structure is, the more logically and fully it will be possible to convey information to the addressee. According to experts, the planned outline should be supplemented with notes indicating the sources used, because it is quite difficult.

Schematic planning outline

A schematic plan outline consists of plan items presented in the form of question-proposals that need to be answered. When working with information, you need to make several notes under each of the proposals-questions. This outline will reflect the structure and internal communication of the data. In addition, this type of abstracts helps to master the studied material well.

Textual synopsis

The textual synopsis differs from all the others in its maximum saturation, tk. extracts and quotations from the original source are used to compile it. It can be easily supplemented with a plan, terms, concepts and theses. It is recommended to compose a textual summary for those who are engaged in the study of literature or science, because here quotes are of particular importance.

But it is not easy to draw up this type of abstracts, because it is necessary to be able to identify the most important passages of text and quotations so that, ultimately, they can give a holistic view of the material studied.

Thematic synopsis

The thematic synopsis is most different from others. Its meaning lies in the fact that a specific topic, issue or problem is covered, and a number of sources of information are usually used to compile it.

Using a thematic summary, it is best to analyze the topic under study, reveal the main points and study them from different angles. But you need to understand that in order to compile such a summary, you will need to research a lot of sources in order to be able to create a complete picture - this is an indispensable condition for really high-quality material.

Free abstract

Free outline is the best choice for people who can apply different ways work with information. You can include everything in a free abstract: abstracts, quotes, excerpts of text, plan, notes, extracts, etc. You only need to be able to quickly and competently express thoughts and work with material. Many people believe that the use of a synopsis of this form is the most complete and complete.

Once you have decided what kind of outline you will compose, you can start the process itself. To do the job efficiently, you need to be guided by certain rules.

Rules for taking notes

There are several such rules and they are all extremely simple:

1. Read the text, identify its main features, nature, complexity; determine if there are terms that you see for the first time. Mark unfamiliar concepts, places, dates, names.
2. Find out all the necessary information about what seemed unfamiliar to you in the text when you first read it. Inquire about people and events. Find out the meaning of the terms. Be sure to record the received data.
3. Read the text again and analyze it. This will help you highlight the main points, divide the information for yourself into separate blocks and notes.
4. Study the main points noted earlier, make up abstracts or write out individual fragments or quotes (if their presence is not necessary, then express the author's thought in your own words while maintaining the meaning). When fixing quotes and fragments, be sure to mark where the information came from and who the author is.
5. If you have the opportunity to express the author's thoughts in your own words, then try to do it in such a way that even large amounts of data are expressed in 2-3 sentences.

Applying these recommendations in practice, you will master the skill of competent note-taking, and you will be able to record and process information very quickly and efficiently (you can use an additional one as a help).

In addition to notes, other equally interesting and effective techniques can be used to record information.

Mind Maps

Mind maps, or, as they are also commonly called, mind maps, mind maps, mind maps or associative maps, are such a method of structuring information that uses graphical records in the form of diagrams.

Mental maps are depicted in the form of tree-like diagrams, which contain tasks, terms, facts and / or any other data that are connected by branches. Branches, as a rule, depart from the main (central) concept.

Efficiency this method due to the fact that it can be used as a convenient and simple information management tool, which requires only paper and a pencil (you can also use a whiteboard and markers).

Reference circuits

Supporting diagrams visually reflect the intellectual psychological structure of a person, which controls his thinking and behavior. They allow you to present information using a logical-graphic language through meaningful supports.

When drawing up a reference scheme, its name is indicated, key concepts are noted and indicators and criteria are schematically depicted, on the basis of which the material is grouped.

This type of information structuring is very convenient when preparing for tests, exams, seminars. It can be accompanied by notes and additional notes.

Block diagrams

Flowcharts are another powerful technique to help structure information. It is a graphical model that describes a sequence.

The essence of the flowchart is to depict individual steps in the form of blocks with different shapes. All blocks are connected to each other by lines-arrows that indicate the desired sequence of thinking.

Most often, flowcharts are used to work with well-structured information, when all steps are specific. Each block, having its own form, indicates a particular thought process, and you can navigate according to the block diagram even with a minimal amount of text data on it. Convenient to use as an additional tool.

Finally

As we can conclude, searching for information and processing it is not only interesting, but also exciting activity. If you learn to apply this skill, taking into account all the features that we talked about today, it will not be difficult to find the information you need and use it for your own purposes, especially if you perform an acceptable algorithm of actions several times in a row.

In the next lesson, you will learn about why it is recommended to follow a specific plan in the process of self-study, how to draw up one, and what you need to pay attention to to make the learning as effective as possible.

Test your knowledge

If you want to test your knowledge of the topic of this lesson, you can take a short test consisting of several questions. In each question, only 1 option can be correct. After you have selected one of the options, the system automatically proceeds to the next question. The points you receive are influenced by the correctness of your answers and the time spent on passing. Please note that the questions are different each time, and the options are mixed.

MODULE 2. Information. Sources of information. Work with information sources

Theory... Information. Types, storage, search, use of information. Sources of information. Rules for compiling a bibliographic list. Working with information sources.

goal: to form ideas about information, its types, sources, characteristics of storage, search and use.

Tasks:

1. Consider the concept and types of information

2. Understand the sources and carriers of information

3. Learn the types, storage, search, use of information

4. To form ideas about working with information sources

5. Learn the rules for compiling a bibliographic list

Concept and types of information

Information - a general scientific concept that includes a body of knowledge about nature, society, man and thinking.

The knowledge gained by humanity is recorded in books, textbooks, teaching aids and other documents.

People deal with many types of information. Information is subdivided into socio-political, socio-economic, pedagogical, scientific and technical, etc.

Communication of people with each other at home and at school, at university, at work and on the street is the transfer of information. The same information can be transmitted and received in different ways. So, to find your way to a museum in an unfamiliar city, you can ask a passer-by, get help from the information desk, try to figure it out yourself with the help of a city plan, or consult a guidebook. When we listen to the teacher's explanation, read books or newspapers, watch TV news, visit museums and exhibitions - at this time we receive information.

A teacher's story or a friend's story, a television program, a telegram, a letter, an oral message, etc. are all examples of information transfer. Receiving and transforming information is a necessary condition for the life of any organism. Even the simplest single-celled organisms constantly perceive and use information, for example, about temperature and chemical composition of the environment to choose the most favorable conditions for existence. Living beings are able not only to perceive information from the environment with the help of their senses, but also to exchange it among themselves.

A person also perceives information using the senses, and languages \u200b\u200bare used to exchange information between people. During the development of human society, a lot of such languages \u200b\u200bhave arisen. First of all, these are native languages \u200b\u200b(Russian, English, etc.) "which are spoken by numerous peoples of the world.

Sources and carriers of information

Sources of informationare various documents.

Under the documents it is necessary to understand not only traditional written sources (books, magazines, brochures, newspapers, etc.), but also other objects that contain information intended for storage and transmission to the user. These are handwritten materials, audiovisual means (sound recordings, films and video films, etc.), visual aids, collection materials.

A document intended for the dissemination of the information contained in it, having undergone editorial and publishing processing, obtained by printing or embossing, printed independently, having output information, is called edition ... The edition can be not only printed text, but also combined, i.e. include recordings of sounds (records, tapes or disks), images on other tangible media (floppy disks, computer disks, slides, tapes, etc.)

Currently, most of the documents are published on paper. It is very expensive, takes up a lot of space, and is very difficult to find data.

At the same time, there are also such information carriers as microfilms, microcards, microfiches, the capacity and recording density of which is much higher than on paper.

Types, storage, search, use of information

A person stores the received information in his head. The human brain is a huge storage of information. A notebook or notebook, your diary, school notebooks, a library, a museum, a cassette with your favorite tunes, videotapes are all examples of information storage.

Information can be processed: translation of a text from English into Russian and vice versa, calculating the sum for given terms, solving a problem, coloring pictures or contour maps - all these are examples of information processing. All of you loved to color in your coloring books. It turns out that at that time you were engaged in an important process - information processing, black and white drawing was turned into color.

Information can even be lost. Let's say Ivanov Dima forgot his diary at home and therefore wrote down his homework on a piece of paper. But, playing at recess, he made an airplane out of it and launched it. Arriving home, Dima was unable to do his homework, he lost information. Now he needs to either try to remember what he was asked, or call a classmate to get the necessary information, or go to school with unfulfilled homework.

The development of science and education has led to the rapid growth of the amount of information and human knowledge. If at the beginning of the last century the total amount of human knowledge doubled approximately every fifty years, then in subsequent years - every five years. The way out of this situation was the creation of computers, which greatly accelerated and automated the information processing process.

The first electronic computer "ENIAC" was developed in the USA in 1946. In our country, the first computer was created in 1951 under the leadership of Academician V.A. Lebedev.

Currently, computers are used to process not only numerical, but also other types of information. Today, a computer is on the desktop of a specialist in any profession. It allows you to contact by special mail anywhere in the world, connect to the funds of large libraries without leaving your home, use encyclopedias, study new sciences and acquire various skills using training programs and simulators. He helps the fashion designer to design patterns, the publisher to compose text and illustrations, the artist to create new paintings, and the composer to music. An expensive experiment can be completely calculated and simulated on a computer.

Receiving, storing, transmitting and processing information is information processes ... The role of information processes in our life is great and every year it becomes more and more tangible. Therefore, the human society of our time is called the information society. People living in an information society should be able to use its main tool, and first of all, a universal information machine - a computer.

Let us consider in more detail the main information processes: search, collection (storage), transmission, processing and use of information.

Search for information.

You and I very often have to search for information: look for a translation of a foreign word in a dictionary, a telephone number in a telephone directory, a train departure time in a train schedule, a required formula in a mathematics textbook, a route on a metro map, and a library catalog information about the required book. There are many more examples. All these are the processes of searching for information on external media: books, diagrams, tables, file cabinets.

Information retrieval methods:

Direct observation;

Communication with experts on the issue of interest to you;

Reading relevant literature;

Watching video, TV programs;

Listening to radio broadcasts, audio cassettes;

Working in libraries and archives;

Request to information systems, databases and computer data banks;

Other methods.

Collection and storage of information.

Collecting information is not an end in itself. In order for the information received to be used, and many times, it is necessary to store it.

Information storage is a way of disseminating information in space and time. The way of storing information depends on its medium (book - library, painting - museum, photography - album). The computer is designed for compact storage of information with the ability quick access To her.

An information system is a repository of information, equipped with procedures for entering, searching and placing and issuing information. The presence of such procedures main feature information systems that distinguish them from simple accumulations of information materials. For example, a personal library, in which only its owner can navigate, is not an information system. In public libraries, the order of placement of books is always strictly defined. Thanks to him, the search and issuance of books, as well as the placement of new acquisitions, are standard, formalized procedures.

People store information either in their own memory (sometimes they say - "in the mind"), or on some kind of external media. Most often on paper.

The information that we remember is always available to us. For example, if you have memorized the multiplication table, then you do not need to look anywhere in order to answer the question: how much is five five? Each person remembers his home address, telephone number, as well as addresses and phone numbers of loved ones. If you need an address or phone number that we do not remember, then we turn to the address book or to the telephone directory.

Human memory can be conditionally called operational. Here the word "operational" is synonymous with the word "fast". A person quickly reproduces the knowledge stored in his memory. We can also call our memory internal memory. Then the information stored on external media (in notebooks, reference books, encyclopedias, magnetic records) can be called our external memory.

A person often forgets something. Information on external media is stored longer and more reliably. It is with the help of external carriers that people pass on their knowledge from generation to generation.

Transfer of information.

In the process of transmitting information, the source and the receiver of information are necessarily involved: the first transmits information, the second receives it. Between them there is an information transfer channel - a communication channel.

A communication channel is a set of technical devices that transmit a signal from a source to a receiver.

Encoder - a device designed to convert the original message of the source to a form convenient for transmission.

Decoder - a device for converting an encoded message into the original one.

Human activities are always associated with the transfer of information.

In the process of transmission, information can be lost and distorted: distorted sound in the phone, atmospheric interference in the radio, distortion or darkening of the image in television, errors during transmission in the telegraph. These interference, or, as experts call them, noise, distort information. Fortunately, there is a science that develops ways to protect information - cryptology.

Data processing.

Information processing is the transformation of information from one type to another, carried out according to strict formal rules.

Information processing according to the "black box" principle is a process in which only input and output information is important and necessary for the user, but the rules by which the transformation takes place are not interested and are not taken into account.

"Black box" is a system in which only information at the input and output of this system is available to an external observer, and the structure and internal processes are unknown.

The process of information processing is not always associated with the receipt of any new information. For example, when translating a text from one language to another, information is processed that changes its form, but not the content.

The coding of information belongs to the same type of processing. Encoding is the transformation of the representation of information from one symbolic form to another, convenient for its storage, transmission or processing.

Another type of information processing is sorting it (sometimes they say - ordering). For example, you decide to write down the addresses and phone numbers of all your classmates on separate cards. In what order should these cards be folded so that later it is convenient to search among them for the necessary information? Most likely, you will put them in alphabetical order by last name. In computer science, the organization of data according to some rule that connects it into a single whole is called structuring.

Use of information.

The information is used in making decisions.

The reliability, completeness, objectivity of the information received will provide you with the opportunity to make the right decision.

Your ability to communicate information clearly and easily will be useful when communicating with others.

The ability to communicate, that is, to exchange information, is becoming one of the main human skills in the modern world.

Computer literacy implies:

Knowledge of the purpose and user characteristics of the main computer devices;

Knowledge of the main types of software and types user interfaces;

Ability to search, store, process text, graphic, numerical information using the appropriate software.

Information culture user includes:

Understanding the patterns of information processes;

Knowledge of the basics of computer literacy;

Technical computer skills;

Effective use of the computer as a tool;

The habit of using a computer in a timely manner when solving problems from any field, based on knowledge of computer technology;

Application of the information obtained in practice.

Working with information sources

Any research work is unthinkable without studying special literature. A qualified analysis of literary sources requires knowledge of certain rules for their search, the appropriate methods of study and note taking.

The literature search can continue in the process of acquaintance with the sources on the basis of studying the lists of used literature, usually given at the end of the book. When selecting literature of interest, one must take into account the year of publication, the authority and popularity in science of the author of the book, the publisher, the general direction of the work (determined at this stage by the title). The stage of selecting the appropriate literature should be accompanied by a bibliographic description of the source on special catalog cards or in a notebook. This is due to the fact that sometimes there is a need for repeated views of certain sources, as well as the need to create a personal card index, built on a specific thematic basis. All bibliographic descriptions must be strictly unified and comply with generally accepted rules.

The study of the literature is necessary for a clearer presentation of the research methodology and determination of general theoretical positions, as well as to identify the degree of scientific elaboration of this problem. It is always important to establish to what extent and how this problem is covered in general scientific works and special works on this issue, reflecting the results of relevant research.

Libraries are the main repositories of scientific and technical information. Therefore, in order to carry out a successful literature search, researchers need to correctly navigate the library funds.

Libraries are universal, scientific, technical, public and departmental. Literature on all branches of knowledge is collected in universal libraries. The branch libraries contain literature on the relevant specialty.

For research (project) activities, schoolchildren generally have enough books, magazines and newspapers from the school and district libraries.

In the event that necessary information is not available in the specified libraries, the necessary information should be ordered from the district library by interlibrary delivery.

When visiting a library, the first thing to do is consult a bibliographer. He will tell you in which catalog to look for a book or other printed publication.

When you receive a book, you must start reading it with an annotation. annotation is a brief description of the content, purpose, form and other features of the printed publication. The abstract can also include information about the author, contain explanatory or recommendatory text.

The student, after reading the annotation, may reveal that he needs only a few pages of the publication in question to work. Then he can order their photocopies and safely work with them at home.

Almost every library has a reading room. It contains the most valuable books, reference books, dictionaries, encyclopedias.

A great help for purposeful work in the library can be provided by appropriate catalogs , which are divided into three main types: alphabetical, systematic and subject. Each of them has a specific purpose, serves to answer only the relevant requests and is drawn up according to GOST.

In the alphabetical catalog information about the literature available in the library is arranged in a unified alphabetical order, indicating the names of the authors or the titles of books (if the authors are not indicated in them). The alphabetical order is also preserved for the author's name and patronymic. Literature published in a language using Latin graphics, as a rule, is located in these catalogs after all publications in Russian.

Along with the alphabetical ones, systematic catalogs ... Descriptions of works in them are given by branches of science and technology. Departments and subsections of systematic catalogs are built in order from general to specific, which is fixed by special indices - a combination of letters or numbers. Divisions of systematic catalogs often have at the beginning lists of their divisions, with links and notes that allow you to navigate in a large array of catalog cards.

A number of large scientific and technical libraries are being created) subject catalogs. They reflect more specific questions and group descriptions of literature under item names in alphabetical order. In addition to the main types of catalogs discussed above, you can also highlight catalogs periodicpublications received by the library, or catalogs of magazine and newspaper articles. When working with literature, one should take into account that the materials of journals and collections contain more recent data than books and monographs, since the latter are being prepared and published for a long time. At the same time, the material is presented in more detail in monographs and books.

There is also an electronic catalog now. Digital catalogue is a bibliographic base in a machine-readable form, including elements of a bibliographic record to reflect the content of documents and elements indicating the storage address of the document (ciphers or library signals). The presence of these elements in the database allows the Electronic Catalog to perform the functions of all types of catalogs:

· By appointment - reading, office, topographic;

· By the way of grouping - alphabetical, systematic and subject;

· By type of reflected documents - for books, magazines and articles, etc .; electronic catalog automated library

· By the reflected funds - Electronic catalog of one library or consolidated Electronic catalog.

Most of the required documents are concentrated in state archives. In our country there are central archives of federal significance, republican, regional and regional archives. A number of scientific and educational institutions and organizations also have their archives.

Documents in archives are deposited and stored in funds, which are divided into inventories. The inventory is based on the chronological principle or structural subdivisions of the fund-creator's institution. The admission of researchers to archives and the procedure for working in them are governed by special rules, common to which are the obligatory submission of a request from a scientific or educational institution to allow a specific person to work in a specific archive on a relevant topic and a plan signed by the researcher.

When selecting documents in the archive, one should, first of all, familiarize oneself with its accounting and reference apparatus: the consolidated reference fund of the archive or a guide to the archive, often with annotations to the most significant funds; catalogs and lists of affairs of funds, which are called storage units. After establishing the name of the fund, the materials of which are necessary for the work, an application is drawn up in the form available in each archive.

The documents received upon application must be carefully reviewed and their value and need for further study identified. The content of documents that are very important for work and have a small amount of documents should be written out in full, simultaneously indicating the name of the fund, inventory number, case number, storage unit and sheet. In some cases, you can limit yourself to brief extracts of individual facts, also accompanying them with a mandatory reference to the fund, inventory, case and sheet.

Working in the archive is an important link in many scientific and scientific-methodological research, therefore, acquaintance with the organization, methodology and technique of this business can be considered an integral part of the general scientific training of students.

All sources of scientific and technical information can be divided into two types: documentary and electronic. The bulk of scientific information is presented in the form of documents, which can be conditionally subdivided into primary and secondary, resulting from the transformation of information based on the study of primary documents. The list of the main sources of information is presented in Fig. 3.1.

Figure: 3.1. Main sources of information

In turn, primary sources are divided into published and unpublished (Fig. 3.2).

Figure: 3.2. Classification of primary sources of information

Published sources of information

Book - non-periodical publication in the form of several bound sheets of printed matter, more than 48 pages in volume, usually in a cover or binding, edited and edited. Books are classified into several types:

Scientific, popular science and production and technical;

Textbooks and teaching aids;

Reference books and encyclopedias;

Normative literature.

Brochure - print work, from 5 to 48 pages.

Periodical - printed works issued by separate, non-recurring issues, under the same name, which are regularly published at certain or indefinite intervals, and each issue has a serial number or date.

Journal - a periodical published at least twice a year and not more often than once a week, subordinate to the interests of a certain circle of readers, having a permanent title, the same design and annual continuous numbering.

The important role of the journal in scientific communications is as follows:

The journal simultaneously performs the functions of a current notification and a public archive, providing prompt information delivery;

Is a means of testing the results of scientific research;

It fixes the priority of scientific and applied problems, creating conditions for the recognition of authors as scientists.

Journal publications make up about 70% of all scientific documents and about 80% of specialists of various levels consider a scientific journal to be the main source of scientific and technical information.

Preprint - a reprint of a published article that the publisher sends through its correspondent network. The preprint publishes what, perhaps, could not have been published in the journal and will never be published later, as well as material that is considered raw, controversial, unproven, and does not require such reviewing as a journal article.

Unpublished sources of information.

Thesis - qualifying scientific work in a certain field of science, containing a set of scientific results and provisions put forward by the author for public protection and testifying to the author's personal contribution to science and his qualities as a scientist. The dissertation is based on completed and published scientific works, discoveries or inventions, technological processes introduced into production, etc.

Deposited manuscripts - scientific works transferred for storage to the depositary body, performed individually or in co-authorship and designed for a limited circle of consumers. Information about deposited manuscripts is reflected in abstract journals and bibliographic indexes. Deposited manuscripts are equated to publications, and their authors retain the right to publish articles in scientific journals. The limitation on the volume of deposited manuscripts is much less than for publications, which allows the author to more fully present the results of his work.

Scientific report - the report of the scientific organization on the research, which is available to organizations and individuals, is stored in the VNTI Center fund.

Secondary sourcesserve as an intermediary between documents and recipients (readers, viewers, listeners) and are the result of analytical-synthetic information processing (ASPI). Information publications , the purpose of which is to provide up-to-date information about the publications themselves and about the most significant aspects of their content. Informational publications, in contrast to ordinary bibliographic publications, operate not only with information about the works of print, but also with ideas and facts contained in them. Institutes, centers and scientific and technical information services (STI) are engaged in publishing information publications.

The bulk of sources is divided into three types: bibliographic, abstract and review (Fig. 3.3).

Figure: 3.3. Classification structure of information publications

Summary - answers the question "What?" about the source of information.

annotation - answers the question "What?" and "About what?" about the source of information.

abstract is an abbreviated summary of the content of the primary document (or part of it) with basic factual information and conclusions. Referencing implies an analysis of the literature on the problem, i.e. a systematized presentation of other people's thoughts with an indication of the source and, without fail, with their own assessment of the stated.

Catalogs (filing cabinets), pointers that can be compiled according to various criteria. Most often, there are alphabetical, author's, subject, geographical, numbering, chronological, systematic catalogs (by branch of knowledge, regardless of who the author is), personal files (about someone), address card indexes.

Bibliographic publications contain an ordered set of bibliographic descriptions that inform specialists about what has been published on the issue of interest. The bibliographic description serves two purposes here. On the one hand, it notifies about the appearance of a document (signal function), and on the other hand, it provides the necessary information for finding it (address function). Bibliographic descriptions are bibliographic indexes and bibliographic lists.

Bibliographic indexes are most often of a signal nature and consist of a list of bibliographic descriptions, often without annotations and abstracts. These publications reflect domestic and foreign literature with maximum completeness. They are distinguished by the efficiency of preparation and relatively short terms from the moment of publication of the publication to the moment of its reflection in the index.

The most significant bibliographic index is Signal Information (SI). The purpose of such a publication is to quickly inform specialists about new publications on world science and technology. It is these publications that are entrusted with the function of proactively notifying readers about the just published scientific and technical literature. SI is mainly systematic indexes issued in the form of bulletins, the subject of which covers almost all branches of world science and technology.

In connection with the development of scientific research and the need to analyze in detail the literature published in previous years, it is becoming increasingly important for researchers retrospective bibliography,the purpose of which is the preparation and distribution of bibliographic information about the works of print for any period of time in the past.

This bibliography is represented by a wide range of manuals. Among them are thematic indexes and reviews, intrabook and article lists of literature, catalogs of industry scientific and technical publishing houses, personal bibliography of prominent natural scientists and engineers, bibliographic indexes on the history of natural science and technology.

Abstract publications contain publications of abstracts, including an abbreviated presentation of the content of primary documents (or parts of them) with basic factual information and conclusions. Abstract publications include abstract journals, abstract collections, express information, information sheets.

Abstract journals in technical sciences publishes VINITI, which most fully reflects the entire world literature on natural science and technology, publishing abstracts, annotations and bibliographic descriptions compiled into articles, monographs, collections.

Abstract collections are periodicals, continuing or non-periodicals that contain abstracts of unpublished documents. They are issued by the central branch institutes of scientific and technical information and technical and economic research. Such publications are usually of a narrow theme.

Express information (EI) - This is a periodical journal or sheet form, which contains extended abstracts of the most relevant published foreign materials and unpublished domestic documents that require prompt coverage. Abstracts contain all the basic data of primary sources, accompanied by figures and tables, as well as theoretical calculations, as a result of which there is no need to refer to the original.

Information leaflets - operational printed publications that contain abstracts reflecting information on advanced production practices or scientific and technical achievements.

TO review publications includes a review on one issue, direction and a collection of reviews. Reviews summarize the information contained in primary documents, being the highest stage of their analytical and synthetic processing. Such publications usually report on the state or development of any branch of science or practical activity, reflecting everything new that has been done in it for a certain time.

The purpose of the reviews is to ensure that scientific research and development is carried out at a modern level, to eliminate parallelism in the work of research organizations, to help make the right choice of direction and methods of development in a particular area.

A job seeker conducting a search for literary sources cannot ignore the publication of the Book Chamber, which produces bibliographic indexes; publications of the state library; the State Library of Foreign Literature, which publishes various bibliographic indexes and card indexes.

Along with information publications for information retrieval, one should use automated information retrieval systems, databases and data banks . The search data can be used directly, but most often they serve as a step (key) to the discovery of primary sources of information, which are scientific works (monographs, collections) and other publications necessary for scientific work.

| Information Security network technology work

Lesson 38
Information security network technology work

Information system security threats

There are four actions performed with information that can contain a threat: collection, modification, leakage and destruction. These actions are basic for further consideration.

Adhering to the accepted classification, we will divide all sources of threats into external and internal.

The sources of internal threats are:

Employees of the organization;
Software;
Hardware.

Internal threats can manifest themselves in the following forms:

Errors of users and system administrators;
violation by the company's employees of the established regulations for the collection, processing, transfer and destruction of information;
software errors;
failures and malfunctions of computer equipment.

External sources of threats include:

Computer viruses and malware;
Organizations and individuals;
Natural disasters.

The forms of manifestation of external threats are:

Infection of computers with viruses or malware;
unauthorized access (NSD) to corporate information;
information monitoring by competing structures, intelligence and special services;
actions of state structures and services, accompanied by the collection, modification, withdrawal and destruction of information;
accidents, fires, man-made disasters.

All the types of threats we have listed (forms of manifestation) can be divided into intentional and unintentional.

According to the methods of influencing information security objects, threats are subject to the following classification: information, software, physical, radio-electronic and organizational-legal.

TO information threats relate:

Unauthorized access to information resources;
illegal copying of data in information systems;
theft of information from libraries, archives, banks and databases;
violation of information processing technology;
illegal collection and use of information;
use of information weapons.

Software threats include:

Using bugs and "holes" in software;
computer viruses and malware;
installation of "embedded" devices;

Physical threats include:

Destruction or destruction of information processing and communication facilities;
theft of information carriers;
theft of software or hardware keys and means of cryptographic data protection;
impact on personnel;

Electronic threats include:

Implementation of electronic devices for intercepting information in technical facilities and premises;
interception, decryption, substitution and destruction of information in communication channels.

Organizational and legal threats include:

Purchasing defective or obsolete information technologies and means of informatization;
violation of legal requirements and delay in making the necessary regulatory decisions in the information sphere.

Consider a network security model and the main types of attacks that can be carried out in this case. Then we will look at the main types of services and security mechanisms that prevent such attacks.

Network security model

Classification of network attacks

In general, there is an information flow from the sender (file, user, computer) to the recipient (file, user, computer):

Figure: 1 Information flow

All attacks can be divided into two classes: passive and active .

Passive attack

A passive attack is such an attack in which the adversary is unable to modify the transmitted messages and insert their messages into the information channel between the sender and the receiver. The purpose of a passive attack can only be eavesdropping on transmitted messages and traffic analysis.

Figure: 2 Passive attack

Active attack

An active attack is one in which the adversary has the ability to modify transmitted messages and insert his own messages. Distinguish the following types active attacks:

1. Denial of Service - DoS attack (Denial of Service)

Denial of service disrupts the normal functioning of network services. The adversary can intercept all messages directed to a specific addressee. Another example of such an attack is the creation of significant traffic, as a result of which the network service will not be able to process the requests of legitimate clients. A classic example of such an attack in TCP / IP networks is the SYN attack, in which the attacker sends packets that initiate the establishment of a TCP connection, but does not send packets that complete the establishment of the TCP connection. As a result, a memory overflow on the server may occur, and the server will not be able to establish a connection with legitimate users.

Figure: 3 DoS attack

2. Modification of the data stream - attack "man in the middle"

Modifying a data stream means either changing the content of a message being forwarded or changing the order of messages.

Figure: 4 "man in the middle" attack

3. Creation of a false stream (falsification)

Falsification (violation of authenticity) means an attempt by one subject to impersonate another.

Figure: 5 Creating a false stream

4. Reuse.

Reuse means passively capturing data and then forwarding it to gain unauthorized access - this is the so-called replay attack. In fact, replay attacks are one of the options for falsification, but due to the fact that it is one of the most common attack options for gaining unauthorized access, it is often considered as a separate type of attack.

Figure: 6 Replay attack

These attacks can exist in any type of network, not only in networks that use TCP / IP protocols as a transport, and at any level of the OSI model. But in networks built on the basis of TCP / IP, attacks are most common, because, firstly, the Internet has become the most widespread network, and secondly, security requirements were not taken into account in the development of TCP / IP protocols.

Security services

The main security services are as follows:

Confidentiality - prevention of passive attacks for transmitted or stored data.

Authentication - confirmation that the information was obtained from a legitimate source, and the recipient really is who he claims to be.

In the case of a single message, authentication must ensure that the recipient of the message is the correct recipient and that the message is received from the claimed source. There are two aspects to establishing a connection.

First of all, when initializing a connection, the service must ensure that both peers are required.

Secondly, the service must ensure that the connection is not affected in such a way that a third party can masquerade as one of the legitimate parties after the connection is established.

Integrity - a service that guarantees that information has not changed during storage or transmission. Can be applied to a stream of messages, a single message, or individual fields in a message, as well as stored files and individual file records.

Impossibility of refusal - the impossibility, both for the recipient and the sender, to refuse the fact of transfer. This way, when the message is sent, the recipient can verify that the legitimate sender did it. Likewise, when a message arrives, the sender can verify that it was received by the legitimate recipient.

Access control - the ability to restrict and control access to systems and applications over communication lines.

Availability - the result of attacks can be a loss or decrease in the availability of a particular service. This service is designed to minimize the possibility of DoS attacks.

Security mechanisms

Let's list the main security mechanisms:

Symmetric encryption algorithms - encryption algorithms in which the same key is used for encryption and decryption, or the decryption key can be easily derived from the encryption key.

Algorithms asymmetric encryption - encryption algorithms, in which two different keys are used for encryption and decryption, called public and private keys, and, knowing one of the keys, it is impossible to calculate the other.

Hash functions - functions, the input value of which is a message of arbitrary length, and the output value of a message of fixed length. Hash functions have a number of properties that make it possible to determine with a high degree of probability that the input message has changed.

Networking model

The secure networking model can be summarized as follows:

Figure 7 Network Security Model

The message that is passed from one participant to another passes through various kinds of networks. In this case, we will assume that a logical information channel is established from the sender to the recipient using various communication protocols (for example, ТСР / IP).

Security measures are necessary if you need to protect the transmitted information from an adversary who can pose a threat to confidentiality, authentication, integrity, etc. All safety technologies have two components:

1. Relatively secure transmission of information. An example is encryption, where a message is altered in such a way that it is unreadable to an adversary, and possibly supplemented with code that is based on the content of the message and can be used to authenticate the sender and ensure the integrity of the message.
2. Some secret information shared by both participants and unknown to the enemy. An example is an encryption key.

In addition, in some cases, a third trusted party (TTP) is needed to ensure secure transmission. For example, a third party may be responsible for distributing secret information between two parties that would not become available to the enemy. Or, a third party can be used to resolve disputes between two parties regarding the validity of the message being transmitted.

This general model gives rise to three main tasks that need to be solved when developing a specific security service:

1. Develop an encryption / decryption algorithm to perform secure transmission of information. The algorithm must be such that the enemy cannot decrypt the intercepted message without knowing the secret information.
2. Create secret information used by the encryption algorithm.
3. Develop a messaging protocol for distributing shared secret information so that it does not become known to the enemy.

Information system security model

There are other security-related situations that do not fit the network security model described above. A general pattern of these situations can be illustrated as follows:

Figure: 8 Information system security model

This model illustrates the security concept of an information system by which unwanted access is prevented. A hacker who tries to illegally penetrate systems accessible over the network may simply enjoy hacking, or may try to damage the information system and / or inject something into it for his own purposes. For example, a hacker's goal might be to obtain credit card numbers stored in the system.

Another type of unwanted access is placing something on a computing system that affects application programs and software utilities such as editors, compilers, etc. Thus, there are two types of attacks:

1. Access to information in order to obtain or modify data stored in the system.
2. Attacking services to prevent them from being used.

Viruses and worms are examples of such attacks. Such attacks can be carried out using floppy disks or over a network.

Security services that prevent unwanted access can be broken down into two categories:

1. The first category is defined in terms of the watchdog function. These mechanisms include login procedures based, for example, on the use of a password to allow access only to authorized users. These mechanisms also include various firewalls that prevent attacks at different layers of the TCP / IP protocol stack, and, in particular, can prevent the penetration of worms, viruses, and other similar attacks.
2. The second line of defense consists of various internal monitors that control access and analyze user activity.

One of the basic concepts in ensuring the security of an information system is the concept of authorization - the definition and granting of access rights to specific resources and / or objects.

The security of an information system should be based on the following basic principles:

1. The security of the information system should be consistent with the role and objectives of the organization in which this system installed.
2. Ensuring information security requires an integrated and holistic approach.
3. Information security should be an integral part of the management system in a given organization.
4. Information security must be economically viable.
5. The responsibility for ensuring safety must be clearly defined.
6. The security of the information system should be reassessed periodically.
7. Social factors, as well as measures of administrative, organizational and physical security, are of great importance for ensuring the security of the information system.

Sources of evidence - these are certain carriers of evidentiary information, i.e. information about the facts to be proved in the course of the proceedings.

Sources of evidence include: testimony of a suspect, accused, victim, witness, expert opinion, material evidence, protocols of investigative actions, court hearings and operational-search measures, other documents and other media obtained in the manner prescribed by the Criminal Procedure Code.

Suspect's testimony - this is information provided to the suspect in writing or orally during an interrogation conducted during the preliminary investigation or inquiry, as well as during the performance of other investigative actions with his participation (Article 91 of the CCP).

The suspect has the right to testify about the suspicion against him, as well as about other circumstances known to him that are important in the case, and the evidence available in the case. Thus, the subject of the suspect's testimony is the circumstances that give rise to suspicion, as well as any other information relevant to the case.

The testimony of such a participant in the criminal process as the accused is close to the testimony of a suspect in nature and procedural form of fixation.

Defendant's testimony - this is information provided by the accused verbally or in writing during interrogation, as well as during other investigative actions with his participation (Article 92 of the Criminal Procedure Code).

For the accused and the suspect, giving evidence is a right, not an obligation. They are not liable for knowingly giving false testimony or refusing to testify, which is one of the guarantees of ensuring the right to defend.

The testimony of the accused is of a dual nature. They, on the one hand, are a source of evidence, and on the other, a means of defense against the charges brought against them.

The testimony of the accused is usually divided into:

1) testimony, which contains a confession of his guilt (full or partial);

2) testimony in which this guilt is denied;

3) evidence against other persons, the so-called slander, that is, knowingly false evidence against another person.

The confession by the accused of his guilt can be used as the basis for the accusation only if the confession is confirmed by the totality of the available evidence in the case.

The accused's denial of his guilt is also subject to careful and comprehensive verification. All the arguments of the accused must either be refuted or confirmed. If neither one nor the other succeeded, and doubts remain about the presence (absence) of any circumstances, then they are interpreted in favor of the accused.

One of the types of testimony of the suspect and the accused is their testimony against other persons, the so-called slander. Often, the suspect and the accused try to shift their guilt, in whole or in part, onto others. This is one of the remedies and cannot entail any liability.

The issue is resolved differently when testimony against other persons is given by the suspect or the accused on the facts, circumstances that are not included in the accusation, and the involvement in which the interrogated is not verified at all. In such cases, the suspect or accused must be warned that he will testify as a witness and therefore may be criminally liable.

The assessment of the testimony of the suspect and the accused is carried out on a general basis, that is, from the point of view of their relevance, admissibility, completeness and reliability. When evaluating such indications, you should always consider:

The special procedural position of the accused in the criminal process, his interest in the outcome of the case;

The fact that he is not responsible for false testimony;

The accused is not obliged to prove his innocence.

Verification of the testimony of the accused (suspect) can be carried out by:

Comparative analysis of the testimony of one person;

Comparison of the factual data contained in the testimony with other evidence available in the case;

The production of investigative (judicial) actions to compare their results with the verifiable testimony.

When checking and evaluating the testimony of an accused who pleads guilty, it is necessary to find out whether the confession of guilt is a consequence of self-incrimination.

The accused's denial of his guilt and the corresponding testimony require careful verification. Not only the accused, who actually committed a crime, but also the innocent can deny his guilt.

When evaluating testimony against other persons, it is necessary to determine the motive by which the interrogated was guided. The most common motives for false testimony are: fear of responsibility for what they have done, fear of punishment; the hope that the crime will not be solved; concealment of accomplices; fear that the intimate aspects of life will be announced.

If the accused (suspect) has changed his testimony (in whole or in relation to certain circumstances), then it is necessary to determine the reliability of each of them.

Witness testimony - this is information provided by a witness orally or in writing during an interrogation conducted at a preliminary investigation, inquiry or court session, as well as during other investigative actions with his participation (Article 94 of the Code of Criminal Procedure).

The law defines the circle of persons who cannot be interrogated as a witness (part 2 of article 60 of the CCP).

The subject of the witness's testimony is determined by law. In accordance with Part 2 of Art. 94 of the CPC, a witness may be questioned about any relevant circumstances, including the identity of the suspect, the accused, the victim and his relationship with them and other witnesses.

The testimony of the witness must be based on certain sources. Information provided by a witness cannot serve as evidence if he cannot indicate the source of his knowledge.

The testimony of a witness has evidentiary value only if it contains specific information about the event under investigation.

Verification of the testimony of a witness is carried out by analyzing their content, their completeness, consistency, etc. In addition, the testimony of a witness is compared with other evidence, including the testimony of other persons. And, finally, to check the correctness of the testimony of a witness, various investigative actions can be carried out: an experiment, examination, interrogation of other persons, an expert examination is appointed. If there are contradictions in the testimony of a witness with the testimony of other persons, a confrontation may be held.

Evaluation of the testimony of a witness consists in determining the relevance, admissibility, reliability and sufficiency of the information contained in the testimony to establish the circumstances to be proven in the case.

When assessing the reliability of testimony, it is taken into account, first, the possibility of deliberate distortion of information, giving deliberately false information. Therefore, the interest of the witness in the outcome of the case is checked (whether he is a relative of any of the persons involved in the case or an outsider), as well as his moral and psychological qualities (honesty or deceit, a tendency to fantasize, etc.). You should be especially careful about the testimony of young witnesses, since children are very prone to fantasy and suggestion.

Secondly, it is necessary to take into account the possibility of inadvertent distortion of information, good faith delusion or error.

The process of forming evidence includes three stages: perception, memorization and reproduction. Errors and distortions are possible on each of them. When perceiving an event, a distorted view of it may be due to the state of health, personal psychophysiological qualities of the witness (for example, significant loss of vision, observation or, on the contrary, absent-mindedness), his state at the moment of perception (for example, a state of alcoholic intoxication or fatigue), conditions of perception ( time of day, illumination, weather, etc.). The accuracy of memorization also depends on the personal qualities of the witness, as well as on the time interval from the moment of observation to the moment of interrogation. Various distortions are possible during the reproduction of the perceived. Not every person is able to correctly, clearly and clearly state what he saw or heard.

The testimony of the victim is close to the testimony of a witness in terms of the nature of the actions performed in the direction of collecting evidence.

Victim testimony - this is information provided to the victim orally or in writing during an interrogation conducted at a preliminary investigation, inquest or in a court session, as well as during the performance of other investigative actions with his participation.

The testimony of the victim in its main features has much in common with the testimony of a witness in its procedural nature, the content of the subject of the testimony, and the peculiarities of their formation. Proceeding from this, the law established a unified procedural procedure for obtaining, collecting, checking and evaluating the testimony of a witness and a victim.

The subject of the victim's testimony coincides with the subject of the witness's testimony (Articles 93, 94 of the CCP). At the same time, there are certain differences between the testimony of the witness and the testimony of the victim, which are primarily due to the different legal status of these participants in the process.

The victim is usually interested in the outcome of the case. This circumstance may affect the objectivity of his testimony about the circumstances of the crime.

The victim, unlike the witness, is an active participant in the process. If for a witness testifying is his duty, then for a victim it is not only an obligation, but also a right that he is vested with for active protection their interests.

The assessment of the testimony of the victim, as well as of the witness, is carried out on a general basis. It should be borne in mind that the testimony of the victim comes from the person concerned. After the completion of the preliminary investigation, the victim gets acquainted with the case materials. The awareness of the victim about all the materials and evidence collected in the case, of course, can leave a significant imprint on his personal testimony. All this obliges to critically treat the testimony of the victim, subject them to a thorough check.

Expert opinion Is a procedural document certifying the fact and progress of the expert's examination of the materials submitted by the body conducting the criminal procedure, and containing conclusions on the issues put before the expert, based on the expert's special knowledge in the field of science, technology, art or craft and other fields of activity (Art . 95 of the Criminal Procedure Code).

The expert's conclusion has no advantages over other evidence and is subject to mandatory assessment. In Art. 95 of the Code of Criminal Procedure specifically stipulates that an expert's opinion is not mandatory for the criminal prosecution authorities and the court. However, their disagreement with the conclusion must be motivated by them in an appropriate resolution, determination, sentence.

Evaluation of the expert's conclusion includes, first of all, the establishment of its admissibility as evidence, that is, compliance with the procedural order of appointment and examination. The competence of the expert and his lack of interest in the outcome of the case should be verified. Only objects that are properly procedurally formalized can be subject to expert examination. In the event of significant violations that entail their inadmissibility, the expert's opinion also loses evidentiary force. And, finally, the correctness of the expert conclusion, the presence of all the necessary details in it, should be checked.

The assessment of the relevance of the expert's conclusion depends on the relevance of the investigated objects. If their relevance is not confirmed, then it automatically loses this property and the expert's conclusion.

The assessment of the reliability of the conclusion includes determining the reliability of the methodology applied by the expert, the sufficiency of the material presented to the expert and the correctness of the initial data, the completeness of the research conducted by the expert.

Physical evidence objects are recognized that served as instruments of a crime, or retained traces of a crime, or were objects of criminal actions, as well as money and other valuables obtained by criminal means, and all other objects and documents that can become means of detecting a crime, establishing factual circumstances cases, identifying the perpetrators or refuting the accusation or mitigating the responsibility of the accused (art. 96 of the CCP).

The essence of material evidence consists in a direct material display, recording of factual data, on the basis of which circumstances that are significant for the case are established.

Material carriers of evidentiary information, which can act as material evidence, are divided by law into groups: objects; money and other values; documents.

1. Items that served as an instrument of crime. These are all those items that were used by a criminal to achieve a socially dangerous goal, regardless of the main purpose of the item. These include, for example, the murder weapon (knife, pistol, etc.) or objects with the help of which the theft was carried out (master key, crowbar used to break open the door). Vehicles used as instruments of crime are physical evidence and are subject to confiscation.

2. Items that have retained traces of the crime. These are any items that have changed during appearance, damage caused by a criminal, instruments of crime and other factors associated with a socially dangerous act. Such items include, for example, clothing with traces of blood or tears, items with gunshot injuries, a broken safe, etc.

3. Items that were the objects of criminal acts. These include items that are targeted for criminal offense. For example, stolen things.

4. Money and other valuables obtained by criminal means. This does not mean the money and values \u200b\u200bat which the criminal encroachment was directed, but precisely the money acquired as a result of the crime.

5. All other objects and documents that may serve as a means of detecting a crime, establishing the factual circumstances of the case, identifying the perpetrators or refuting the charges or mitigating the responsibility of the accused.

An object can become material evidence, provided that the procedural order of its receipt, discovery and admission to the case is observed. This order consists of four blocks of actions.

First, the fact and all the circumstances of the discovery or receipt of the object by the investigator (court) must be formalized in a procedural manner. Usually things are seized in the course of some investigative action (inspection, search, seizure, etc.) and the fact of seizure is recorded in the corresponding protocol. Things can be presented by the accused, the victim, other participants in the process, citizens, which must also be documented in a protocol.

Secondly, material evidence must be examined and described in detail in the protocol of the investigative action, during the production of which the object was found. If possible, physical evidence should be photographed. You can carry out a separate investigative action - examination of material evidence (object) and draw up a separate protocol.

Thirdly, the material evidence must be attached to the case by a special resolution (determination) of the body conducting the criminal process.

Fourth, the safety of material evidence should be ensured. As a rule, they should be kept in a criminal case.

If items, due to their bulkiness or other reasons, cannot be stored in a criminal case, they must be photographed, sealed, if possible, and stored in a place indicated by the body conducting the criminal procedure, about which the case must have an appropriate certificate (Article 97 of the CCP) ...

Material evidence is kept until the sentence comes into legal force or until the expiration of the time limit for appealing against the decision or ruling to discontinue the case, but not more than three years. In some cases, material evidence can be returned to their owners even before the expiration of the specified time limits, if this is possible without prejudice to the proceedings.

Assessment of physical evidence includes establishing their admissibility, relevance and evidentiary value. Admissibility is determined by compliance with the rules for their withdrawal and procedural registration, as well as storage rules.

The relevance of physical evidence and their evidentiary value depend on the fact that they establish. As a rule, physical evidence does not indicate the fact of the crime itself, but about another event that has evidentiary value, i.e. are circumstantial evidence. Only in cases where the possession of an object (for example, a firearm, a narcotic substance), its storage constitutes a criminal act, it can be considered that material evidence has the value of direct evidence, since directly testifies to the very event of the crime.

The assessment of material evidence is carried out in conjunction with other evidence and, first of all, with documents that record the circumstances of their seizure and the results of their study. The verification and assessment takes into account the circumstances under which the item was discovered, the time, place and conditions of its discovery. If there is no data on this in the case materials, then it is deprived of evidentiary value.

Protocols of investigative actions, court sessions and operational-search measures... A special group of sources of evidence is made up of protocols of operational-search measures, investigative actions and a court session.

According to Art. 99 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, the sources of evidence are the protocols of investigative actions drawn up in the manner prescribed by the Code of Criminal Procedure, certifying the circumstances and facts established during the examination, examination, seizure, search, presentation for identification, verification of testimony on the spot, investigative experiment, exhumation; protocols of investigative actions and operational-search measures on wiretapping and recording of negotiations carried out using technical means of communication and other negotiations, drawn up in accordance with the procedure established by law and with the attachment of the corresponding recording of the wiretap, as well as the minutes of the court session reflecting the course of judicial actions and their results ...

A feature of this group of protocols is that they record certain circumstances and facts that are important for the case, which are directly perceived by the person who draws up the protocol.

At the same time, as can be seen from the content of Art. 99 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, protocols of interrogations of witnesses, victims, suspects, accused, protocols of confrontation do not belong to the protocols of investigative and judicial actions as an independent source of evidence. And this is not accidental, since the protocol of interrogation reflects not the perception of the actual data by the interrogator directly, but only the story of the interrogated (for example, the testimony of a witness) about the events and circumstances that he previously perceived. Thus, interrogation protocols are only a method (form) of recording testimony.

Verification and evaluation of the protocols of investigative and judicial actions is carried out on the same grounds as for all other types of evidence, since they have no predetermined force and it is possible that they may contain errors or inaccuracies.

The protocol must be drawn up only by an authorized official and have all the necessary details.

Verifying and evaluating the protocols involves comparing the evidence they contain with other evidence in the case.

The protocols of investigative and judicial actions may be accompanied by photographic negatives and photographs, films, transparencies, phonograms, plans, diagrams, casts and prints of traces made during the production of investigative and judicial actions. However, they acquire evidentiary value only in conjunction with the protocol of the investigative or judicial action.

In Art. 99 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, a new source of evidence appeared, in contrast to those in the previous legislation, a source of evidence - protocols of operational-search measures and investigative actions on wiretapping of negotiations carried out using technical means.

If it becomes necessary to monitor the negotiations and record them, the investigator issues a resolution and sends it to the appropriate institution for execution.

Other documents and other media... Other documents are recognized as sources of evidence if the circumstances and facts set forth in them are certified by officials of enterprises, institutions, organizations, associations and citizens and are significant for the criminal case.

Other information carriers include photographic and filming materials, sound and video recordings and other information carriers received, requested or submitted in accordance with the procedure provided for in Art. 103 of the Criminal Procedure Code.

Any object of the material world is recognized as a document on which some kind of thought is fixed by some conventional signs (letters, numbers, etc.).

A document becomes evidence in a criminal case in cases where the information recorded in it is significant for the case. Documents can be official unofficial, as well as original (originals) and derivatives (copies).

Other documents that are sources of evidence include documents drawn up by: the criminal prosecution authority and the court (minutes of an oral statement about a crime; protocol of surrender; protocol of detention; sentence in another criminal case, court decision in a civil case, which entered into legal force, according to which the decisions of the courts on the circumstances relevant to the case are binding on the body conducting the criminal procedure, to the extent provided for by Article 106 of the Criminal Procedure Code, etc.); by officials of organizations (report of a crime, an audit report, a description, a criminal record, etc.); citizens (statement about the commission of a crime, about guilt, letters, etc.).

Photographic and filming materials, sound and video recordings and other information carriers refer to other information carriers as independent sources of evidence in the event that they are obtained not in connection with the production of investigative actions, but are made and presented to the body conducting the criminal procedure by other physical or by legal entities (for example, during a wedding, a video was made, which captured a fight between the guests and the moment the victim was stabbed). If specified in part 2 of Art. 100 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, information carriers are made during the production of investigative actions, then in this case they are appendices to the protocols of investigative actions, ensuring their completeness.

The materials of photographing and filming, sound and video recordings and other information carriers demanded by the body conducting the criminal procedure from organizations, bodies carrying out operational-search activities, officials and citizens, or submitted to it by individuals and legal entities, should be examined, if necessary with the participation of specialist, attesting witnesses, about which the criminal prosecution authority draws up a protocol in compliance with the requirements of Art. 193 and 194 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, and in the court session the results of the examination are entered into the minutes of the court session.

The individuals submitting these media are usually questioned about the place, time and circumstances in which they were discovered or performed.

Other documents and other information carriers are attached to the criminal case and remain with it during the entire period of its storage.

When evaluating documents, attention is drawn to their origin, whether officials have the right to issue the relevant document, and whether the form and content of the document comply with the established rules. The authenticity of the document is checked, the absence of forgeries in it.

Any document can become material evidence if it acquires any of its features (for example, it is stolen, cleaned up). In such cases, the document is attached to the case as material evidence.

Documents, like other evidence, have no predetermined force.

The issue of using as a source of evidence requires special consideration. materials obtained in the course of operational-search activities. Such materials can be used provided that they are received in accordance with the legislation of the Republic of Belarus, submitted, verified and evaluated in the manner established by the Criminal Procedure Code.

Materials obtained in the course of operational-search activities are understood as the collected, confirmed and documented factual data obtained publicly and secretly by employees of operational units in the manner prescribed by the Law of the Republic of Belarus "On operational-search activities" and the Criminal Procedure Code, in the process of operational-search activities to protect the life, health, rights, freedoms and legitimate interests of citizens, property, ensuring the security of society and the state from criminal encroachments (instructions on the procedure for registration and provision by operational units of internal affairs bodies of materials obtained in the course of operational search activities for their use in criminal proceedings, approved by the decree of the Ministry of Internal Affairs on September 29, 2005). emergence of the circumstances included in the subject of proof, an indication of the source of their receipt in order to verify the evidence formed on their basis. -search measures must reflect the sequence and results of the ORM, which can be recognized as sources of evidence, as well as the attached items and documents, examined and packaged in the prescribed manner, obtained during the ORM. When conducting, within the framework of operational-search activities, ORM using operational-technical forces, their results are recorded on material media (phonograms, videograms, films, photographic films, photographs, magnetic, laser discs, diskettes, digital media, tapes and others) and attached to the ORM protocol or operational and technical measures. The recording of the results of operational and technical measures should be carried out in such a way as to preserve the possibility of expertly establishing the authenticity of the recordings made, as well as the belonging of the recorded voices and portrait images to specific persons. These materials are accompanied by information about the time, place and circumstances of obtaining video and audio recordings and photographic materials, copies and casts, as well as a description of their individual characteristics. The provision of materials includes: - the issuance of an order on the transfer of materials to the body conducting the criminal process, which should list operational and official documents and objects and documents obtained during the implementation of ORM, that can be sources of evidence; - execution of the accompanying document and the actual transfer of materials: sending by mail, handover or otherwise. Evidence submitted by the operational-search units can be accepted by the investigating body only as material evidence (Article 96 of the CCP) and other documents (Article 100 of the CCP) ).