How to decipher the resistance value of a resistor or capacitor capacitance, indicated by colored stripes or dots, is described in this note.
Introduction. Color marking for simple radio components has been used for a very long time. It seems to be easier to apply color stripes to cases than to print numbers on them, especially when the cases are round. In addition, during installation, there is no need to specifically ensure that the marking does not turn out to be “face” to the printed circuit board - no matter how you put the part, you can always read its face value. To be honest, for many years of doing radio electronics, I have not seen color marking anywhere except for fixed resistors in round cases with wire leads, probably the above is most relevant for them (the case is round, you can turn it over in different ways during installation, and even apply it on a round the body of the figure is more complicated than the stripes). But the theory says that everything will be exactly the same for capacitors.
Step one. Take the resistor in your right hand and take a close look at it (see photo). Four (maybe five) colored stripes around the body are the very color markings that we need to learn how to read, that is, translate into resistance. Resistance is expressed as a number, so the first step is to learn how to translate colors into numbers. For this we use the following table.
* - only for the multiplier (see below)
The first two (or three, if only five) bars indicate the resistance value, the third (fourth) - the multiplier (how many zeros need to be assigned to the value on the right), the last - the tolerance (the maximum deviation of the value of the real resistor from the nominal, in percent).
Step two. The question immediately arises: after all, the resistor has two identical ends, so the number can be written in two ways? For definiteness, the manufacturers came up with several options to mark which end will be the beginning :).
1.
The first strip is moved closer to the edge of the case (towards the terminal) than the last.
2.
The last strip is thicker than the rest.
But I like the third way better, it doesn't always work, but most often you can use it:
3.
Please note that the value cannot start with three colors: silver, gold and black (zero at the beginning of the number is not written). So, if one conclusion has a silver or gold strip, then you should start on the other side. This doesn't always work, but it often does, as the vast majority of instruments you'll be working with have 5 or 10 percent tolerances.
Step three. We write out the resistance value, then add as many zeros on the right as the multiplier (for example, if the multiplier is orange, that is, "3", then three zeros). If the multiplier is negative, then we do not add zeros, but leave the corresponding number of characters to the right after the comma (one or two). Or, if it's easier for you to understand, multiply the value by the number 10 to the power of the multiplier. One way or another, we got a certain number - this is the resistance of the resistor in ohms.
The last bar, as already mentioned, indicates the maximum possible deviation of the resistance value, in percent, from the resulting number. Usually the schemes are designed for 5-10%, if something particularly accurate is required, the author will most likely tell you about this. As a last resort, there is always an ohmmeter :)
– electronic components assembled into analog and digital devices: TVs, measuring instruments, smartphones, computers, laptops, tablets. If earlier the details were depicted close to their natural appearance, today the conventional graphic designations of radio components on the diagram, developed and approved by the International Electrotechnical Commission, are used.
Types of electronic circuits
In radio electronics, there are several types of circuits: circuit diagrams, wiring diagrams, block diagrams, voltage and resistance maps.Schematic diagrams
Such an electrical circuit gives a complete picture of all the functional nodes of the circuit, the types of connections between them, the principle of operation of electrical equipment. Circuit diagrams are commonly used in distribution networks. They are divided into two types:- Single line. In such a drawing, only power circuits are depicted.
- Full. If the electrical installation is simple, then all its elements can be displayed on one sheet. To describe equipment that includes several circuits (power, measuring, control), drawings are made for each node and placed on different sheets.
Flowcharts
A block in radio electronics is an independent part of an electronic device. A block is a general concept, it can include both a small and a significant number of details. A block diagram (or structural diagram) gives only a general idea of the device of an electronic device. It does not display: the exact composition of the blocks, the number of ranges of their operation, the schemes according to which they are assembled. On the block diagram, blocks are indicated by squares or circles, and the links between them are indicated by one or two lines. The directions of the signal passage are indicated by arrows. Block names in full or abbreviated form can be applied directly to the diagram. The second option is the numbering of blocks and the decoding of these numbers in a table placed on the margins of the drawing. On the graphic images of the blocks, the main details can be displayed or graphs of their work can be applied.Mounting
Wiring diagrams are convenient for self-compilation of the electrical circuit. They indicate the location of each element of the circuit, the methods of communication, the laying of connecting wires. The designation of radio elements in such diagrams usually approaches their natural form.Voltage and resistance maps
A voltage map (diagram) is a drawing in which, next to the individual parts and their terminals, the voltage values \u200b\u200bcharacteristic of the normal operation of the device are indicated. Voltages are placed in the gaps of the arrows, showing in which places it is necessary to make measurements. The resistance map indicates the resistance values characteristic of a working device and circuits.How are various radio components indicated on the diagrams
As previously mentioned, there is a specific graphic symbol to designate radio components of each type.Resistors
These parts are designed to regulate the current strength in the circuit. Fixed resistors have a definite and constant resistance value. For variables, the resistance is in the range from zero to the set maximum value. The names and symbols of these radio components on the diagram are regulated by GOST 2.728-74 ESKD. In the general case, in the drawing they are a rectangle with two leads. American manufacturers designate resistors on the diagrams with a zigzag line. image of resistors on the diagrams
image of resistors on circuit diagrams Fixed resistors
Characterized by resistance and power. They are indicated by a rectangle with lines indicating a certain power value. Exceeding the specified value will lead to failure of the part. Also indicated on the diagram: the letter R (resistor), a number indicating the serial number of the part in the circuit, the resistance value. These radio components are designated by numbers and letters - "K" and "M". The letter "K" means kOhm, "M" - mOhm.Variable resistors
image of variable resistors on the diagrams Their design includes a movable contact, which changes the resistance value. The part is used as a regulating element in audio and other similar equipment. In the diagram, it is indicated by a rectangle indicating the fixed and moving contacts. The drawing shows a constant nominal resistance. There are several options for connecting resistors: 
resistor connection options - Sequential. The end output of one part is connected to the start output of another. A common current flows through all elements of the circuit. Connecting each subsequent resistor increases the resistance.
- Parallel. The initial conclusions of all resistances are connected at one point, the final ones at another. Current flows through each resistor. The total resistance in such a circuit is always less than the resistance of a single resistor.
- Mixed. This is the most popular type of connection of parts, combining the two described above.
Capacitors
graphical representation of capacitors in diagrams A capacitor is a radio component consisting of two plates separated by a dielectric layer. It is applied to the circuit in the form of two lines (or rectangles - for electrolytic capacitors), indicating the plates. The gap between them is a dielectric layer. Capacitors are second only to resistors in popularity in circuits. They are capable of accumulating an electric charge with subsequent recoil. - Capacitors with fixed capacitance. The letter “C” is placed next to the icon, the serial number of the part, the value of the nominal capacity.
- With variable capacity. Near the graphical icon, the values of the minimum and maximum capacity are put down.
Diodes and zener diodes
graphical representation of diodes and zener diodes in diagrams A diode is a semiconductor device designed to pass electric current in one direction and create obstacles for its flow in the opposite direction. This radio element is designated as a triangle (anode), the top of which is directed towards the current flow. A line (cathode) is placed in front of the top of the triangle. A zener diode is a type of semiconductor diode. Stabilizes the reverse polarity voltage applied to the terminals. A stabistor is a diode whose terminals are connected to a voltage of direct polarity. transistors
Transistors are semiconductor devices used to generate, amplify and convert electrical oscillations. With their help, control and regulate the voltage in the circuit. They differ in a variety of designs, frequency ranges, shapes and sizes. The most popular are bipolar transistors, indicated on the diagrams by the letters VT. They are characterized by the same electrical conductivity of the collector and emitter.
graphic representation of transistors on circuits Microcircuits
Microcircuits are complex electronic components. They are a semiconductor substrate into which resistors, capacitors, diodes and other radio components are integrated. Serve to convert electrical impulses into digital, analog, analog-to-digital signals. Available with or without housing. The rules for the conventional graphic designation (UGO) of digital and microprocessor microcircuits are regulated by GOST 2.743-91 ESKD. According to them, UGO has the shape of a rectangle. The diagram shows the lines of supply to it. The rectangle consists only of the main field or the main one and two additional ones. The main field must indicate the functions performed by the element. In additional fields, the pin assignments are usually deciphered. Primary and secondary fields may or may not be separated by a solid line.
graphical representation of microcircuits Buttons, relays, switches
graphic representation of buttons and switches on the diagram 
the image of the relay on the diagrams The letter designation of radio components on the diagram
Letter codes of radio elements on circuit diagrams
| Devices and elements | Letter code |
| Devices: amplifiers, telecontrol devices, lasers, masers; general designation | BUT |
| Converters of non-electric quantities into electrical ones (except for generators and power supplies) or vice versa, analog or multi-digit converters, sensors for indicating or measuring; general designation | IN |
| Speaker | VA |
| Magnetostrictive element | BB |
| Ionizing radiation detector | BD |
| Selsyn sensor | sun |
| Selsyn receiver | BE |
| Phone (capsule) | bf |
| Thermal sensor | VC |
| Photocell | BL |
| Microphone | VM |
| Pressure sensor | VR |
| Piezo element | IN |
| Speed sensor, tachogenerator | BR |
| Pickup | BS |
| Speed sensor | VV |
| Capacitors | FROM |
| Integrated microcircuits, microassemblies: general designation | D |
| Microcircuit integrated analog | DA |
| Integrated digital microcircuit, logical element | DD |
| Information storage device (memory) | D.S. |
| delay device | DT |
| Elements are different: general designation | E |
| Lighting lamp | EL |
| A heating element | EC |
| Surge arresters, fuses, protection devices: general designation | F |
| fuse | FU |
| Generators, power supplies, crystal oscillators: general designation | G |
| Battery of galvanic cells, accumulators | GB |
| Indication and signaling devices; general designation | H |
| Sound alarm device | ON THE |
| Symbolic indicator | HG |
| Light signaling device | HL |
| Relays, contactors, starters; general designation | TO |
| Relay electrothermal | kk |
| Time relay | CT |
| Contactor, magnetic starter | km |
| Inductors, chokes; general designation | L |
| Engines, general designation | M |
| Measuring instruments; general designation | R |
| Ammeter (milliammeter, microammeter) | RA |
| Pulse counter | PC |
| Frequency meter | PF |
| Ohmmeter | PR |
| Recording device | PS |
| Action time meter, hours | RT |
| Voltmeter | PV |
| Wattmeter | PW |
| Resistors constant and variable; general designation | R |
| Thermistor | RK |
| Measuring shunt | RS |
| Varistor | EN |
| Switches, disconnectors, short circuiters in power circuits (in equipment power circuits); general designation | Q |
| Switching devices in control, signaling and measuring circuits; general designation | S |
| Breaker or switch | SA |
| push button switch | SB |
| Automatic switch | SF |
| Transformers, autotransformers; general designation | T |
| Electromagnetic Stabilizer | TS |
| Converters of electrical quantities into electrical, communication devices; general designation | And |
| Modulator | willows |
| Demodulator | UR |
| Discriminator | Ul |
| Frequency converter, inverter, frequency generator, rectifier | USD |
| Semiconductor and electrovacuum devices; general designation | V |
| diode, zener diode | VD |
| Transistor | VT |
| Thyristor | VS |
| Electrovacuum device | VL |
| Microwave lines and elements; general designation | W |
| coupler | W.E. |
| In short, we are ka tel | WK |
| Valve | WS |
| Transformer, phase shifter, heterogeneity | wt |
| Attenuator | WU |
| Antenna | WA |
| Contact connections; general designation | X |
| Pin (plug) | XP |
| Socket (socket) | XS |
| Collapsible connection | XT |
| High frequency connector | XW |
| Mechanical devices with electromagnetic drive; general designation | Y |
| Electromagnet | YA |
| Brake with electromagnetic drive | YB |
| Coupling with electromagnetic drive | YC |
| Terminal devices, filters; general designation | Z |
| limiter | ZL |
| Quartz filter | ZQ |
Alphabetic codes for the functional purpose of a radio electronic device or element
| Functional purpose of the device, element | Letter code |
| Auxiliary | BUT |
| counting | FROM |
| differentiating | D |
| Protective | F |
| Test | G |
| Signal | H |
| Integrating | 1 |
| Gpavny | M |
| Measuring | N |
| Proportional | R |
| Status (start, stop, limit) | Q |
| Return, reset | R |
| remembering, recording | S |
| synchronizing, delaying | T |
| Speed (acceleration, deceleration) | V |
| Summing | W |
| Multiplication | X |
| analog | Y |
| Digital | Z |
Letter abbreviations for radio electronics
| Letter abbreviation | Explanation of the abbreviation |
| AM | amplitude modulation |
| AHR | automatic frequency control |
| APCG | automatic adjustment of the local oscillator frequency |
| APCF | automatic frequency and phase adjustment |
| AGC | automatic gain control |
| ARYA | automatic brightness control |
| AC | acoustic system |
| AFU | antenna-feeder device |
| ADC | analog to digital converter |
| frequency response | frequency response |
| BGIMS | large hybrid integrated circuit |
| NOS | wireless remote control |
| BIS | large integrated circuit |
| biofeedback | signal processing unit |
| BP | power unit |
| BR | scanner |
| DBK | radio channel block |
| BS | information block |
| BTC | blocking transformer personnel |
| bts | line blocking transformer |
| BOO | Control block |
| BC | chroma block |
| BCI | integrated color block (with the use of microcircuits) |
| VD | video detector |
| VIM | time-pulse modulation |
| WU | video amplifier; input (output) device |
| HF | high frequency |
| G | heterodyne |
| GV | reproducing head |
| GHF | high frequency generator |
| GHF | hyperfrequency |
| GZ | start generator; recording head |
| GIR | heterodyne resonance indicator |
| GIS | hybrid integrated circuit |
| GKR | vertical scan generator |
| GKCH | swept frequency generator |
| GMV | meter wave generator |
| GPA | smooth range generator |
| GO | envelope generator |
| HS | signal generator |
| GSR | line scan generator |
| GSS | standard signal generator |
| gg | clock generator |
| GU | universal head |
| VCO | voltage controlled generator |
| D | detector |
| dv | long waves |
| dd | fractional detector |
| days | voltage divider |
| dm | power divider |
| dmv | decimeter waves |
| DU | remote control |
| DShPF | dynamic noise reduction filter |
| EASC | unified automated communication network |
| ESKD | unified system of design documentation |
| zg | audio frequency generator; master oscillator |
| zs | retarding system; sound signal; pickup |
| ZCH | audio frequency |
| AND | integrator |
| ikm | pulse code modulation |
| ICU | quasi-peak level meter |
| ims | integrated circuit |
| ini | linear distortion meter |
| inch | infra-low frequency |
| and he | reference voltage source |
| un | source of power |
| ICH | frequency response meter |
| to | switch |
| KBV | traveling wave ratio |
| HF | short waves |
| kWh | extremely high frequency |
| kzv | recording-playback channel |
| KIM | pulse code modulation |
| kk | coils personnel deflecting system |
| km | coding matrix |
| knch | extremely low frequency |
| efficiency | efficiency |
| KS | line coils of the deflecting system |
| SWR | standing wave ratio |
| VSWR | voltage standing wave ratio |
| CT | check Point |
| KF | focusing coil |
| LBV | traveling wave lamp |
| lz | delay line |
| fishing | backward wave lamp |
| lpd | avalanche transit diode |
| lppt | tube-solid-state TV |
| m | modulator |
| MA | magnetic antenna |
| MB | meter waves |
| mdp | metal-insulator-semiconductor structure |
| MOS | metal-oxide-semiconductor structure |
| ms | chip |
| MU | microphone amplifier |
| neither | non-linear distortion |
| LF | low frequency |
| ABOUT | common base (turning on the transistor according to the common base circuit) |
| ovh | very high frequency |
| oi | common source (turning on the transistor *according to the common source circuit) |
| OK | common collector (turning on the transistor according to the common collector circuit) |
| onch | very low frequency |
| oos | negative feedback |
| OS | deflecting system |
| OU | operational amplifier |
| OE | common emitter (turning on the transistor according to the circuit with a common emitter) |
| surfactant | surface acoustic waves |
| pds | two-voice accompaniment prefix |
| remote control | remote control |
| pkn | code-voltage converter |
| pnk | voltage-to-code converter |
| mon | converter voltage frequency |
| pos | positive feedback |
| PPU | jamming device |
| pch | intermediate frequency; frequency converter |
| ptk | TV channel switch |
| pts | full TV signal |
| vocational school | industrial television installation |
| PU | preliminary effort^erіb |
| PUV | playback preamplifier |
| PUZ | recording preamplifier |
| PF | bandpass filter; piezo filter |
| ph | transfer characteristic |
| pcts | full color television signal |
| radar | line linearity regulator; radar station |
| RP | memory register |
| RPCG | manual adjustment of the local oscillator frequency |
| RRS | line size controller |
| PC | shift register; convergence controller |
| RF | notch or notch filter |
| CEA | electronic equipment |
| SCDU | wireless remote control system |
| VLSI | very large integrated circuit |
| SW | medium waves |
| svp | touch program selection |
| microwave | ultra high frequency |
| sg | signal generator |
| sdv | extra long waves |
| SDU | light-dynamic installation; remote control system |
| SC | channel selector |
| SLE | all-wave channel selector |
| sk-d | UHF channel selector |
| SK-M | VHF channel selector |
| CM | mixer |
| ench | ultra low frequency |
| joint venture | grid field signal |
| ss | sync signal |
| ssi | horizontal sync pulse |
| SU | selector-amplifier |
| mid | average frequency |
| TV | tropospheric radio waves; a television |
| TVS | line output transformer |
| tvz | audio output channel transformer |
| TVK | output personnel transformer |
| TIT | television test chart |
| TKE | capacitance temperature coefficient |
| tki | temperature coefficient of inductance |
| tcmp | temperature coefficient of initial magnetic permeability |
| tcns | temperature coefficient of stabilization voltage |
| tks | temperature coefficient of resistance |
| ts | network transformer |
| mall | television center |
| tcp | color bar chart |
| THAT | specifications |
| At | amplifier |
| HC | playback amplifier |
| UVS | video amplifier |
| UVH | sample-hold device |
| UHF | high frequency signal amplifier |
| UHF | UHF |
| UZ | recording amplifier |
| UZCH | audio signal amplifier |
| VHF | ultrashort waves |
| ULPT | unified tube semiconductor TV |
| ULLCT | unified tube semiconductor color TV |
| ULT | unified tube TV |
| UMZCH | audio power amplifier |
| UNT | unified tv |
| ULF | low frequency signal amplifier |
| UNU | voltage controlled amplifier. |
| UPT | DC amplifier; unified solid state TV |
| HRO | intermediate frequency amplifier |
| UPCHZ | intermediate frequency signal amplifier sound? |
| UPCHI | image IF signal amplifier |
| URCH | RF signal amplifier |
| US | interface device; comparison device |
| UHF | microwave signal amplifier |
| OSS | horizontal sync amplifier |
| USU | universal touch device |
| uu | control device (node) |
| UE | accelerating (control) electrode |
| UEIT | universal electronic test chart |
| PLL | phase locked loop |
| HPF | high pass filter |
| FD | phase detector; photodiode |
| FIM | phase-pulse modulation |
| FM | phase modulation |
| LPF | low pass filter |
| FHR | intermediate frequency filter |
| FHR | audio intermediate frequency filter |
| FPFI | image intermediate frequency filter |
| FSI | lumped selectivity filter |
| FSS | concentrated selection filter |
| FT | phototransistor |
| PFC | phase response |
| DAC | digital-to-analogue converter |
| digital computer | digital computer |
| CMU | color and music installation |
| DH | central television |
| BH | frequency detector |
| CHIM | pulse frequency modulation |
| world championship | frequency modulation |
| shim | pulse width modulation |
| shs | noise signal |
| ev | electron volt (e V) |
| COMPUTER. | electronic computer |
| emf | electromotive force |
| eq | electronic switch |
| CRT | cathode-ray tube |
| AMY | electronic musical instrument |
| emos | electromechanical feedback |
| EMF | electromechanical filter |
| EPU | electroplay device |
| ECVM | electronic digital computer |
Hello site visitors 2 Schemes. Many do not understand how to determine the denomination of a Soviet radio component by the code written on any radio element. But many devices or devices from those times have been successfully operated so far. Now we will talk about determining the denomination of the main parts of the production of the USSR.
Resistors
Let's start, of course, with the most commonly used part - the resistor. And let's start with Soviet resistors. Almost all such resistors have a letter marking. First, let's study the letters that are used on this part:
- The letter "E", "R" - means Ohms
- The letter "K" means Kiloom
- The letter "M" means Megaom
And the snag itself lies in the location of the letter between, before or after the number. In general, there is nothing complicated. If the letter is between numbers, for example:
1K5 - this means 1.5 Kiloom. It's just that in the Soviet Union, in order not to mess around with a comma, they inserted the letter of the denomination there. If 1R5 or 1E5 is written, this means that the resistance of 1.5 Ohm or 1M5 is 1.5 Megaohm. If the letter comes before the numbers, then instead of the letter we substitute “0” and continue the line of numbers that come after the letter.
For example: K10 \u003d 0.10 K, which means if there are 1000 ohms in a kiloohm, then we multiply this figure (0.10) by 1000 and we get 100 ohms. Or we simply substitute a zero to the numbers, while changing the resistance in our mind to the nearest, less than this.
And if the letter is after the numbers, then nothing changes - so we calculate what is written on the resistor, for example:
- 100k = 100 kiloohms
- 1M = 1 Megaohm
- 100R or 100E = 100 Ohm
You can determine the denominations according to the following table:
There is also a color marking of resistors, the most basic, but at the same time they use online calculators most often, or you can just use it.
Even on the diagrams where there are resistors, “sticks” are written on the graphic symbols of the resistor. These "sticks" denote power according to the following table:
And the power of the resistors is determined by the size and inscriptions on them. On Soviet power of 1-3 watts, they wrote power, but they no longer write on modern ones. But here the power is already determined by experience or from reference books.
Capacitors
Next up are the capacitors. They have slightly different markings. On modern capacitors, there is only digital marking, so we don’t pay attention to all letters except “p”, “n”, all extraneous letters usually indicate tolerance, heat resistance, and so on. They usually have a code marking consisting of 3 digits. We leave the first three as is, and the third shows the number of zeros, and we write out these zeros, after which the capacity is obtained in picofarads.
Example: 104 \u003d 10 (we write out 4 zeros, since the number after the first two 4) 0000 Picofarads \u003d 100 Nanofarads or 0.1 microfarads. 120 = 12 picofarrad.
But there are also those with less than 3 digits (two or one). This means the capacitance is in picofarads already indicated to us. Example:
- 3 = 3 picofarads
- 47 = 47 picofarads
It has a capacitance of 18 picofarads.
If there are letters "n" or "p", then the capacity is in picofards or nanofarads, for example:
- Letter "n" - nanofarads
- The letter "p" stands for picofarads
On the first (large) it says "2n7" - in this case, as well as on the 2.7 nanofarad resistor. The second capacitor says 58n, that is, it has a capacitance of 58 nanofarads. But if you still don’t understand this, it’s better to buy a multimeter, it has a capacitance measurement function. There is a special connector where the capacitor is inserted and under it you need to select the required measurement range (in picofarads, nanofarads, microfarads). With this multimeter, the capacitance is measured up to 20 microfarads.
transistors
Now Soviet transistors, since there are still a lot of them now, although not all of them continue to be made. Their marking is indicated by colored dots of two types, such:
There are also these, with code markings:
Of course, you can not remember these tables, but use the reference program, which is in the general archive at the link above. We hope this information about the main details of domestic production will be very useful to you. The author of the material is St.
Beginning radio amateurs often face such a problem as the designation of radio components on diagrams and the correct reading of their markings. The main difficulty lies in the large number of items, which are represented by transistors, resistors, capacitors, diodes and other details. How correctly the diagram is read depends largely on its practical implementation and the normal operation of the finished product.
Resistors
Resistors include radio components that have a strictly defined resistance to the electric current flowing through them. This function is designed to reduce the current in the circuit. For example, to make the lamp shine less brightly, power is supplied to it through a resistor. The higher the resistance of the resistor, the less the lamp will glow. For fixed resistors, the resistance remains unchanged, and variable resistors can change their resistance from zero to the maximum possible value.
Each fixed resistor has two main parameters - power and resistance. The power value is indicated on the diagram not with alphabetic or numeric characters, but with the help of special lines. The power itself is determined by the formula: P \u003d U x I, that is, it is equal to the product of voltage and current. This parameter is important, since a particular resistor can only withstand a certain power value. If this value is exceeded, the element will simply burn out, since heat is generated during the passage of current through the resistance. Therefore, in the figure, each line marked on the resistor corresponds to a certain power.
There are other ways to designate resistors in diagrams:
- On circuit diagrams, a serial number is indicated in accordance with the location (R1) and a resistance value of 12K. The letter "K" is a multiple prefix and stands for 1000. That is, 12K corresponds to 12000 ohms or 12 kilo-ohms. If the letter "M" is present in the marking, this indicates 12,000,000 ohms or 12 megaohms.
- In marking with letters and numbers, the letter symbols E, K and M correspond to certain multiple prefixes. So the letter E \u003d 1, K \u003d 1000, M \u003d 1000000. The decoding of the symbols will look like this: 15E - 15 ohms; K15 - 0.15 Ohm - 150 Ohm; 1K5 - 1.5 kOhm; 15K - 15 kOhm; M15 - 0.15M - 150 kOhm; 1M2 - 1.5 mOhm; 15M - 15mOhm.
- In this case, only numerical designations are used. Each includes three digits. The first two of them correspond to the value, and the third to the multiplier. Thus, the factors are: 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4. They mean the number of zeros added to the main value. For example, 150 - 15 ohms; 151 - 150 Ohm; 152 - 1500 Ohm; 153 - 15000 Ohm; 154 - 120000 Ohm.
Fixed resistors
The name of fixed resistors is associated with their nominal resistance, which remains unchanged throughout the entire period of operation. They differ from each other depending on the design and materials.
Wire elements consist of metal wires. In some cases, high resistivity alloys may be used. The basis for winding the wire is a ceramic frame. These resistors have a high nominal value accuracy, and the presence of a large self-inductance is considered a serious drawback. In the manufacture of film metal resistors, a metal with a high resistivity is sprayed onto the ceramic base. Due to their qualities, such elements are most widely used.
The design of carbon fixed resistors can be film or bulk. In this case, the qualities of graphite are used as a material with high resistivity. There are other resistors, for example, integral ones. They are used in specific integrated circuits where the use of other elements is not possible.
Variable resistors
Beginning radio amateurs often confuse a variable resistor with a variable capacitor, because outwardly they are very similar to each other. However, they have completely different functions, and there are also significant differences in the display on circuit diagrams.
The design of the variable resistor includes a slider that rotates along the resistive surface. Its main function is to adjust the parameters, which consists in changing the internal resistance to the desired value. This principle is based on the operation of the sound control in audio equipment and other similar devices. All adjustments are carried out by smoothly changing the voltage and current in electronic devices.
The main parameter of a variable resistor is resistance, which can vary within certain limits. In addition, it has an installed power that it must withstand. All types of resistors have these qualities.
On domestic circuit diagrams, elements of a variable type are indicated in the form of a rectangle, on which two main and one additional output are marked, located vertically or passing through the icon diagonally.
On foreign schemes, the rectangle is replaced by a curved line with the designation of an additional output. Next to the designation, the English letter R is placed with the serial number of one or another element. The value of the nominal resistance is put next to it.
Connection of resistors
In electronics and electrical engineering, resistor connections in various combinations and configurations are quite often used. For greater clarity, a separate section of the circuit with serial, parallel and should be considered.
With a series connection, the end of one resistor is connected to the beginning of the next element. Thus, all resistors are connected one after another, and a total current of the same value flows through them. There is only one path for current to flow between the start and end points. With an increase in the number of resistors connected in a common circuit, there is a corresponding increase in the total resistance.
Such a connection is considered parallel when the initial ends of all resistors are combined at one point, and the final outputs at another point. Current flows through each individual resistor. As a result of the parallel connection, as the number of connected resistors increases, the number of paths for current to flow also increases. The total resistance in such a section decreases in proportion to the number of connected resistors. It will always be less than the resistance of any resistor connected in parallel.
Most often in radio electronics, a mixed connection is used, which is a combination of parallel and series options.
In the presented circuit, resistors R2 and R3 are connected in parallel. The series connection includes resistor R1, a combination of R2 and R3, and resistor R4. In order to calculate the resistance of such a connection, the entire circuit is divided into several simple sections. After that, the resistance values are summed up and the overall result is obtained.
Semiconductors
A standard semiconductor diode consists of two terminals and one rectifying electrical junction. All elements of the system are combined in a common body made of ceramic, glass, metal or plastic. One part of the crystal is called the emitter, due to the high concentration of impurities, and the other part, with a low concentration, is called the base. The marking of semiconductors on the diagrams reflects their design features and technical characteristics.
For the manufacture of semiconductors, germanium or silicon is used. In the first case, it is possible to achieve a higher transmission coefficient. Germanium elements are characterized by increased conductivity, for which even a low voltage is sufficient.
Depending on the design, semiconductors can be point or planar, and according to technological features, they can be rectifier, pulsed or universal.
Capacitors
The capacitor is a system that includes two or more electrodes made in the form of plates - linings. They are separated by a dielectric, which is much thinner than the capacitor plates. The whole device has mutual capacitance and has the ability to store electrical charge. In the simplest diagram, the capacitor is represented as two parallel metal plates separated by some kind of dielectric material.
On the circuit diagram, next to the image of the capacitor, its nominal capacitance is indicated in microfarads (uF) or picofarads (pF). When designating electrolytic and high-voltage capacitors, after the nominal capacitance, the value of the maximum operating voltage, measured in volts (V) or kilovolts (kV), is indicated.
variable capacitors
Capacitors with variable capacitance are denoted by two parallel segments, which are crossed by an inclined arrow. Movable plates connected at a certain point in the circuit are shown as a short arc. Near it, the designation of the minimum and maximum capacity is affixed. A block of capacitors, consisting of several sections, is combined using a dashed line crossing the adjustment signs (arrows).
The designation of the trimmer capacitor includes an oblique line with a dash at the end instead of an arrow. The rotor is displayed as a short arc. Other elements - thermal capacitors are designated by the letters SK. In its graphical representation, a temperature symbol is affixed near the non-linear adjustment sign.
Permanent Capacitors
Graphic designations of capacitors with a constant capacitance are widely used. They are depicted as two parallel segments and conclusions from the middle of each of them. The letter C is placed next to the icon, after it is the serial number of the element and, with a small interval, the numerical designation of the nominal capacity.
When using a capacitor with in a circuit, an asterisk is applied instead of its serial number. The rated voltage value is indicated only for high voltage circuits. This applies to all capacitors, except for electrolytic ones. The digital symbol for voltage is placed after the designation of the capacitance.
The connection of many electrolytic capacitors requires polarity. In the diagrams, a “+” sign or a narrow rectangle is used to indicate a positive lining. In the absence of polarity, both plates are marked with narrow rectangles.
Diodes and zener diodes
Diodes are among the simplest semiconductor devices that operate on the basis of an electron-hole junction, known as a p-n junction. The property of one-way conductivity is clearly conveyed in graphic symbols. A standard diode is depicted as a triangle symbolizing the anode. The vertex of the triangle indicates the direction of conduction and abuts against the transverse line denoting the cathode. The entire image is crossed in the center by an electrical circuit line.
For the letter designation VD is used. It displays not only individual elements, but also entire groups, for example, . The type of a particular diode is indicated next to its reference designation.
The base symbol is also used to designate zener diodes, which are semiconductor diodes with special properties. There is a short stroke in the cathode directed towards the triangle symbolizing the anode. This stroke is located invariably, regardless of the position of the zener diode icon on the circuit diagram.
transistors
Most electronic components have only two pins. However, elements such as transistors are equipped with three terminals. Their designs come in a variety of types, shapes and sizes. Their general principles of operation are the same, and slight differences are associated with the technical characteristics of a particular element.
Transistors are primarily used as electronic switches to turn various devices on and off. The main convenience of such devices is the ability to switch high voltage using a low voltage source.
At its core, each transistor is a semiconductor device with the help of which electrical oscillations are generated, amplified and converted. The most widespread are bipolar transistors with the same electrical conductivity of the emitter and collector.
In the diagrams, they are indicated by the letter code VT. The graphic image is a short dash, from the middle of which a line departs. This symbol represents the base. Two inclined lines are drawn to its edges at an angle of 60 0, representing the emitter and collector.
The electrical conductivity of the base depends on the direction of the emitter needle. If it is directed towards the base, then the electrical conductivity of the emitter is p, and that of the base is n. When the arrow is directed in the opposite direction, the emitter and base change the electrical conductivity to the opposite value. Knowing the electrical conductivity is necessary to correctly connect the transistor to the power supply.
In order to make the designation on the diagrams of the radio components of the transistor more visual, it is placed in a circle, meaning the case. In some cases, a metal case is connected to one of the terminals of the element. Such a place on the diagram is displayed as a dot, affixed where the output intersects with the body symbol. If there is a separate output on the case, then the line indicating the output can be connected to a circle without a dot. Near the positional designation of the transistor, its type is indicated, which can significantly increase the information content of the circuit.
Letter designation on diagrams of radio components
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Basic designation |
Element name |
Additional designation |
Device type |
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Device |
current regulator |
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Relay box |
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Device |
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Converters |
Speaker |
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Thermal sensor |
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Photocell |
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Microphone |
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Pickup |
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Capacitors |
Power capacitor bank |
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Charging Capacitor Block |
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Integrated circuits, microassemblies |
IC analog |
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IC digital, logic element |
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Elements are different |
Thermal electric heater |
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Lighting lamp |
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Surge arresters, fuses, protective devices |
Discrete instantaneous current protection element |
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The same, for the current of inertial action |
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fuse |
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Discharger |
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Generators, power supplies |
Battery pack |
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Synchronous compensator |
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Generator exciter |
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Indicating and signaling devices |
Sound alarm device |
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Indicator |
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Light signaling device |
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Signal board |
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Signal lamp with green lens |
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Signal lamp with red lens |
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Signal lamp with white lens |
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Ionic and semiconductor indicators |
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Relays, contactors, starters |
Current relay |
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Relay index |
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Relay electrothermal |
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Contactor, magnetic starter |
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Time relay |
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Voltage relay |
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Close command relay |
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Trip command relay |
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Intermediate relay |
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Inductors, chokes |
Fluorescent lighting choke |
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Action time meter, hours |
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Voltmeter |
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Wattmeter |
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Power switches and disconnectors |
Automatic switch |
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Resistors |
Thermistor |
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Potentiometer |
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Measuring shunt |
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Varistor |
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Switching device in control, signaling and measuring circuits |
Breaker or switch |
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push button switch |
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Automatic switch |
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Autotransformers |
Current transformer |
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Voltage transformers |
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Converters |
Modulator |
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Demodulator |
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Power Supply |
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Frequency converter |
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Electrovacuum and semiconductor devices |
diode, zener diode |
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Electrovacuum device |
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Transistor |
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Thyristor |
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Contact connectors |
current collector |
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High frequency connector |
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Mechanical devices with electromagnetic drive |
Electromagnet |
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electromagnetic lock |
List of books:
Nesterenko I.V., Panasenko V.N. Color and code designations of radioelements
V.V. Mukoseev, I.N. Sidorov. Marking and designation of radioelements. Directory
Sadchenkov D.A. Marking of domestic and foreign radio components. Help Guide
Nesterenko I.I. Marking of radio-electronic components. Pocket guide
Perebaskin A.V. Marking of electronic components. 9th edition
Marking of electronic components
Nesterenko I.I. Color, code, symbols of radio-electronic components
Nesterenko I.I. Color and code marking of radio-electronic components, domestic and foreign
Authors: various
Publisher: Zaporozhye: INT, LTD; M.: Hot Line - Telecom; Moscow: Solon-Press; M: Dodeka-XXI;
Year of publication: 2001-2008
Pages: 2677
Format: pdf
Size: 259 mb
Russian language
Download Marking of radio components and radio elements. Collection of books
