Panama is a country located in the southeast of Central America. Its official name is the Republic of Panama with the capital Panama. The map of the country is as follows: from the north, the state is bounded by the Caribbean Sea, from the south by the Pacific Ocean, from the east it has a border with Colombia, from the west - with Costa Rica. The area of \u200b\u200bthe state is 75,420 square kilometers. The country is located in the Isthmus of Panama, which unites South America with Central America. Its mountainous territory is divided only by the Panama Canal (see map).

The population of the country is  about 4 million people. On January 1, 2014, the province of Western Panama was created, so currently 10 provinces and 5 Native American communities comprise Panama. Western Panama is separated from the province of Panama from the east by the Panama Canal.

You can understand where Panama is located on the world map by clicking on the link from Wikipedia: https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panam%C3%A1#/media/File:Panama-CIA_WFB_Map.png

Tongue

According to the Constitution of Panama, Spanish is the official language of the country, and all its inhabitants must know it and have the right to use it. In 2006, Spanish became the mother tongue for 93.1% of the country's population. Other Panamanian languages \u200b\u200bare taught in the educational institutions of the respective administrative units, where the majority of the population are Indians.

Beyond Spanish The following are considered official languages:

Immigrants from countries other than Spanish speak their native languages. For example, Arabic is spoken by the Syrian and Lebanese colonies in the province of Colon. English is widely spoken by African immigrants on the Atlantic coast of the country. There are also large colonies of Chinese, Italians and French.

Panama Canal

The state of Panama, as a country that transits a huge volume of goods through its territory, has become crossroads of cultures from around the world. The Panama Canal has been built on the territory of the country, which facilitates communication between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, and plays an important role in world trade. Due to its geographical location, the Panama Canal offers the world a wide range of services:

• marine;
• commercial;
• financial.

Panama Canal, being the path connecting the Caribbean Sea with the Pacific Ocean, has a length of 65 km. At both ends of the canal there are locks designed to raise ships to the level of Gatun Lake - an artificial lake created to reduce the digging of the canal. The lake is located at an altitude of 26 m above sea level.

The Panama Canal was opened on August 15, 1914 and was able to reduce the time and distance of sea routes, making commercial and economic exchange between the two oceans more dynamic, and gave a strong impetus to the development of the Central American region and the country. Major stateswho began to use the channel according to the results of 2012 were the following:

Before the opening of the canal, people used the natural sea routes between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, which were the Strait of Magellan (Argentina), and Pechny cape, located in southern Chile. The Panama Canal is considered one of the largest buildings in world engineering of the 20th century.

More information about the Panama Canal can be found on the Internet, according to Panama Wikipedia.

Geography

Climate

The country has a tropical climate., with very high temperatures throughout the year on the coast. Temperatures become less low with an increase in altitude to 1000 m above sea level. Precipitation is high throughout the country, while on the Caribbean coast it rains constantly, while on the Pacific coast, the dry period lasts from December to March. Hurricanes do not pose a threat to a country because it is located in the south of their zone of influence. On the territory of the country there is a zone where winds of trade winds from both hemispheres of the planet are found. This meeting significantly affects the climate of Panama and determines the duration of the wet and dry periods in one or another part of the country.

Flora and fauna

Panama is a country with great biological diversity. Due to its proximity to South America, some South American species live on its territory, for example, the capybara, which is the largest rodent in the world, a bespectacled bear and a blue parrot. In the waters belonging to Panama, there are 1497 species of fish, which is more than in Costa Rica and Nicaragua, 957 species of birds and 229 species of mammals. 10 115 plant species grow on its territory, 229 species of reptiles and 179 species of amphibians live. Conservation of this biological diversity and control of the level of emissions into the environment is given enough attention from the authorities.

Tourism

One of the main occupations of the country is tourism. Panama's main tourist arenas are concentrated on commercial tourism and beaches. Most tourists come here from the USA, Canada, Europe, Central and South America. The annual tourism income is $ 1,400 million, and this figure is growing rapidly.

In 2013, Panama hosted 1,527,228 tourists at Tocumen Airport. On average, a tourist in the country spends $ 365-385 per day, which is the highest tourist expense in Central America. The average tourist in the country is 6-7 days.

During 2011 Panama received more than 2 million tourists, which is 18% more than in the previous year. The New York Times magazine placed Panama in first place in the ranking of the countries that are best visited in 2012, as the state was experiencing the moment of maximum economic recovery, 12 years after the return of the Isthmus of Panama to the control of local authorities.

Among the attractions of the country are BioMuseum - a center of natural history, which opened in 2014, Casco Antiguo - the ancient part of Panama, declared by UNESCO in 1997 as a part of the Heritage of Humanity and the Bocas de Toro archipelago (Mouth of the Bull), which has become a popular stop for wanderers and tramps.

For 2018, the following places were included in the list of recommended places to visit:

Pages: 1

At dawn, at about six in the morning, we approached the Atlantic entrance to the Panama Canal. It was assumed that all day we will have a "picturesque" passage through the canal.

Atlantic entrance to the Panama Canal // dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com

The direct entrance to the Panama Canal looks like this. In the distance, you can see many ships waiting their turn to pass through the canal. On the right is the port of Colon and the lighthouse at the entrance to the canal. Here, a pilot boarded us. In the Panama Canal, the captain is obliged to transfer control to him. Navigation here is very difficult, so the training lasts 8 years. In the world, only about 200 tons of people drive ships through the canal. The total length of the channel is about 80 kilometers. Although this is not so much, the passage takes about 8-10 hours.

// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com

The first stage is to rise from the Atlantic Ocean to the artificial lake Gatun, through the system of the same name gateways. The difference between the water levels is 26 meters. It is at such a height, the power of water, that every ship raises. All this is located about a kilometer from the entrance to the canal. Gateways can work both ways. But as a rule, work is planned so that at first the flow is in one direction, and then in the other. Together with us, a little ahead, was a large container ship. We went into all the gateways one after another. Each time, one could observe the next step that awaits us. You see, he is on the left. A small green-red arrow on the pier indicates that we need to go into the right gateway.

// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com

Next year marks the 100th anniversary of the opening of the channel. And although the French began to build the Pansky Canal in 1879, this attempt was unsuccessful. Money was wasted, and miscalculations were made in the design. Construction manager Ferdinand Lesseps failed to replicate the success of the Suez Canal. Thanks to political and financial pressure, the United States transferred the right to build. This time, all leadership was concentrated in the hands of the army. And after 10 years, the construction was successfully completed.

// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com

When you look at how a ship enters a lock, it seems incredible that we can fit in such a narrow space. Moreover, the cost of error is huge. On average, 36 ships pass this route every day. On the day we went through the canal, the total number of ships was 57. For passing through the canal, shipowners pay hundreds of thousands of dollars. But still, it is much more profitable than making a hook of 13,000 kilometers, which takes 4 weeks to spend.

// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com

Each year, 13,000 ships traveling along this route carry 172 million tons of cargo. Panama receives about $ 2 billion annually for using the channel.

// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com

Airlock doors weigh 680 tons each. When they close, they hide in a niche in the wall of the lock chamber.

// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com

They are powered by a giant hydraulic mechanism.

// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com

Our ship was of the Panamax class. This means the largest permissible size of the vessel to pass through the Panama Canal. Here you can see how much space was left from the side of our vessel to the concrete wall. The width of the lock chamber is 33.5 meters. The width of our ship is 32 meters. Accordingly, 75 centimeters remained on each side in the ideal case. The length is 304.8 meters, while the length of the ship is 294 meters. I don’t know what kind of draft we had at that moment, but the minimum depth in the chamber is 12 meters 55 centimeters. All this reminds me of trying to get a horse into a regular bathtub with the goal of washing.

// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com

It goes without saying that it is impossible to maneuver in such conditions using only ship engines and rudders. Each ship is dragged through locks by special locomotives. They are called mules. In addition to pulling the ship forward using steel 2.5 cm cables, the mules keep the ship in the middle, preventing it from hitting the concrete board. While passing through the gateways, I looked at GPS at what speed we are moving. Outwardly, it seemed that we were standing still. And only if you look closely at the edge of the side, it was clear that all the same we are moving forward. It turned out that our speed at that moment was 3 kilometers per hour.

// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com

Mules work on electric traction. Each of them is capable of developing a pulling force of 35 tons. Between the rails, there is another additional notched rail. Using a special gear, the mule clings to him in order to increase traction. In total, about 100 locomotives are used on the channel. The cost of each of them is 2.1 million dollars. They work two at a time, one in the cab, directly controls the speed and adjusts the tension of the cable. The second is located outside, visually monitoring the situation, and helps to get and remove the steel cable for towing. See the orange high chair outside? This is just for the second issue.

// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com

The mule operators are controlled by junior pilots via a radio channel. They are constantly on board the ship. Initially, on a ship, ordinary ropes are wound. These two workers in the boat are doing just that. They swim to the side and pass the rope to the crew. Later, with the help of it, steel from mules is pulled on board.

// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com

In addition, with each maneuvering, tugboats actively help. They help maintain the position of the vessel until the mules pull the ropes. Depending on the weight of the vessel, the number of mules may vary. Here you can see that at least three mules on each side are getting ready to haul this container ship.

// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com

The ship rises exclusively with the help of gravity and water. In order to exclude any turbulence and unevenness of the water supply, it is pumped through hundreds of holes in the floor of the lock chamber. Daily, it consumes 7.5 billion liters of fresh water from Lake Gatun.

Artificial Lake Gatun // dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com

After the locks, we find ourselves in one of the largest artificial lakes of Gatun. The main difference between the second attempt to build the canal was that the Americans decided not to build the canal at sea level. Instead, they noticed that the surroundings of the Chagres River are an almost perfect place for artificial flooding. An earthen dam was built, with the help of which they blocked the river. The total area of \u200b\u200bthe lake is 418 square kilometers. It is one of the largest sources of fresh water in Panama.

// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com

In fact, all ships sail over the flooded jungle. The abundance of heavy rains allows you to maintain the water level in the lake. If the water level drops, then a restriction on the maximum draft of ships is introduced. Some have to be unloaded at the entrance to the channel to comply with the standards. Exceeding the level of 26 meters is also dangerous. Since if the water will be poured through the lock gate, it will not be possible to use the channel. In the area of \u200b\u200bGatun locks, there is a discharge dam to regulate the water level. At the time of construction, it was one of the largest in the world.

// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com

Before construction began, a lot of work was done to drain the surroundings and destroy mosquitoes. The jungle was cut down, swamps were drained, grass was mowed, and puddles were treated with kerosene to destroy insect larvae. The French lost 20,000 people due to yellow fever and malaria. At that time, it was not yet known that mosquitoes are the carrier of this disease. Thanks to such actions, the yellow fever in the region was completely defeated, and the number of cases of malaria infection was minimized.

// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com

Throughout the route along the lake, various vessels constantly came across us. Most of all were container ships, tankers, and such ships for transporting cars. The cruise ship was only ours.

// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com

But to enter the Pacific Ocean, builders had to overcome the Panama mountain range. This is the Culebrian notch. In order to dig a similar canal, the Americans reconstructed the old French railway, increasing its capacity by tens of times. Moreover, it was destroyed by the great Panama earthquake of 1882. The earthquake was the last nail in the coffin of the French Panama Canal project. In addition, the investigation revealed that a lot of money was spent for other purposes. So the word "Panama" in French has become synonymous with scam. In one of the bottlenecks of the Kulebrsky recess recently built the bridge of the Century. It connects South and North America.

// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com

The height of the mountains that had to be overcome reached 80 meters. Every 3 years, a quantity of rock equal in volume to the entire Suez Canal was exported from here.

// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com

Here is the bottleneck of the canal. All ships that are part of the Panama Canal install special equipment with a GPS receiver. At any moment, the pilot on his computer and the dispatcher see the position of all ships. If visibility worsens, and rains and fogs are not uncommon, the movement is stopped.

// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com

In the event of unforeseen circumstances and maneuvers, in the Kulebrsky recess, we were constantly accompanied by tugboats.

// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com

At the meeting we came across only small vessels, and such tourist boats. I think we were for them, impression number one for the entire tour. Not often cruise ships call the Panama Canal.

// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com

The soil around the canal is very unstable. It consists of soil, slate and clay. During rains, all this absorbs moisture, swells and becomes the cause of mudflow landslides. Therefore, every day, such floating dredges work on the channel. Using a drill on the nose, the soil is crushed, and then, together with water, is sucked out. This pipeline throws out soil about 10 kilometers from the canal. In addition, the channel is expanded in order to increase its throughput.

// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com

Where the bottom is especially strong, such floating drilling rigs work here. They make many holes in the bottom into which explosives are laid. Then, after the blasting, the rock is easier to remove using drags or floating excavators.

// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com

Finally we came to the second gate, on the way to the Pacific Ocean - Pedro Miguel. These locks lower us by 9.5 meters, into another artificial lake - Miraflores. On the right, behind the container ship we already know, we see a huge construction. By the centenary of the canal, large-scale reconstruction began here. The main problem of the canal now is that it is not able to pass large ocean vessels. A century ago, such a size of lock chambers seemed fantastic, and met all needs. But now this is clearly not enough.

// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com

Reconstruction will cost $ 5 billion. This time, the US military is only building Atlantic locks. From the Pacific side, the work is being carried out by a consortium of European companies.

// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com

The main problem here is that from the Pacific, due to large tides, the load on the gateways is huge. And given that the gates will have to be done even more and higher than the previous ones, the task becomes not trivial. Therefore, there will be sliding gates similar to those that are now operating in Antwerp. New gateways are being built in parallel with the old ones, and they will work together. Due to this, it is planned to increase the channel’s revenues almost twice.

// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com

And finally, the last stage, on the way to the Pacific Ocean, the Miraflores gateway. Here we were lowered from the lake level to the level of the Pacific Ocean.

// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com

On the left side is the building for visitors to the Panama Canal. There were a huge number of people. They screamed, and greeted us in unison in Panama. Before that, the ship also had a contest for the best welcome poster. And all who did something, from the port side kept them while passing by. I also wanted to make a wonderful drawing with a three-letter word, but I thought that there would be no time to greet people with the word "peace" and at the same time take pictures. :-)

// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com

When discharging water, one no longer has to worry much about turbulence. Therefore, she simply leaves the portal on the left. Ahead of Panama City, and right in front of the bow of the ship, is another drawbridge across the Panama Canal.

Panama City, Panama // dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com

Frankly, the outlines of Panama City on the horizon impressed me. I did not expect to see such a modern city with skyscrapers. Something this development resembles Dubai in the variety of forms of buildings. Although, due to seismic activity, the houses are clearly not so high-rise.

Bridge of the Americas, Panama // dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com

Before entering the Pacific Ocean, there is another bridge over the canal - the Bridge of the Americas. Behind it is already visible the ships on the roadstead, waiting in line for passage on our way only to the other side.

dmytrocherkasov
13/04/2013

Pages: 1

The construction of the canal, as we recall, was started by French companies, but they were not able to complete the project due to bankruptcy. The United States bought the construction, which in 1903 concluded an agreement on the transfer of the canal to perpetual use. In addition to receiving the canal and land around in full charge, under this agreement the United States was granted the right to deploy troops at any time in any area of \u200b\u200bPanama and, in general, was allowed to feel at home. The contract price was $ 10 million plus an annual rent of $ 250 thousand.

An interesting fact in the history of Panama. As you know, Panama has long been a colony of Spain, and since 1821 it became part of federal Colombia. The struggle for independence here continued throughout the history of Panama, where uprisings and movements for freedom from Colombia erupted from time to time. But, oddly enough, it was the United States that helped Panama gain independence. Of course, the intentions of the United States were far from nobility, their main goal was still the Panama Canal, and that's why. To sign the agreement on the transfer of rights to the channel, the consent of at least two parties was necessary.

At the same time, in Panama by the beginning of the 20th century, separatist sentiments had intensified, which went right into the hands of the United States. But a certain threat was posed by the troops of Colombia, whose authorities did not just want to abandon Panama. That is why, in order to ensure security, and indeed the very fact of concluding a treaty, the United States paid Colombia $ 25 million for Panama’s independence.

Colombia agreed to “let go” of Panama in 1903, although it can only be said conditionally that Panama became free, since it immediately fell under the actual control of the United States.

Panama Canal. According to an agreement concluded in 1846 between the United States and New Grenada (which later became the Republic of Colombia), the United States was granted the right of free transit through the Panama Isthmus through all communication routes existing or likely to be built in the future, in return for which the United States guaranteed the neutrality of the isthmus.

US-Colombian Treaties:

1) The American-Colombian Treaty of 1846 on peace, friendship, navigation and trade - was concluded in the Colombian capital Bogota 12. XII between the USA and Colombia (then New Grenada). Of particular importance is Art. XXXV of the Treaty regarding the construction of the interoceanic route through the Isthmus of Panama. Under the agreement, the United States obtained equal rights with New Grenada to operate the transit route, which was being designed through the Panama Isthmus (regardless of whether it is a railway or a canal). The United States guaranteed New Grenada sovereignty over the isthmus in return for the obligation that this path would be open at all times to the United States. A. -... 1846 was the first link in a long chain of subsequent conventions in connection with various projects of inter-ocean communication through Central America and the US struggle with England and France around this issue.

The United States was in a hurry to conclude an American-Colombian treaty to get ahead of England and France, which at that time were negotiating with Nicaragua to build an inter-ocean canal through Nicaragua. The aggravation of the diplomatic struggle between the United States and England on the construction of the canal ended in 1850 with the conclusion of a compromise agreement (see<<Клейтон-Бульвера договор>>).

2) The American-Colombian Treaty of 1921 - concluded in Washington in 1913, but ratified with changes by the US Senate only 20. IV 1921, resolved the conflict that arose between the USA and Colombia in connection with the separation of Panama from Colombia in 1903. The agreement was preceded by lengthy diplomatic negotiations . Colombia refused to recognize Panama's independence, demanding that the conflict be referred to arbitration. The US government rejected this claim, and in January 1909, before the expiration of President T. Roosevelt’s term, concluded an agreement with Colombia, promising her monetary compensation and benefits for using the channel in peacetime and wartime. When the terms of the agreement were published, the Colombian government was overthrown, and the Colombian ombudsman was forced to emigrate from Colombia.

In September 1912, negotiations between the United States and Colombia resumed, and after Wilson came to power, succeeding Taft in March 1913, the new Secretary of State Brian concluded A.-k. with Columbia. D., in which the United States provided Colombia with benefits in using the channel and paid her $ 25 million. Colombia, for its part, promised to recognize the independence of Panama, as well as the Panamanian border established by the treaty. In the summer of 191.4, when the treaty entered the US Senate for ratification, former President T. Roosevelt, who initiated Panama’s exclusion from Colombia in 1903, raised a protest campaign. As a result of this campaign, the Senate was able to ratify the treaty only 2 years after the death of T. Roosevelt, when the Harding government, which replaced Wilson 4. III. 1921, under the influence of oil companies interested in Colombian oil, put pressure on the Senate. The treaty entered into force on 30.III 1922, after ratification by Colombia.

In 1849, the US representative in Guatemala, without the appropriate authority of his government, concluded a convention with the government of Nicaragua, according to which the United States received the exclusive right to build a transport route between the Karaib Sea and the Pacific Ocean. Throughout this path, the United States could erect fortifications and contain troops, and if the United States participated in the war, close the channel for enemy military and merchant ships.

However, the United States refrained from ratifying this convention, fearing that it could cause complications in relations with Great Britain, which also sought to build a canal in Nicaragua under its control and took measures to seize the ports that would serve as the terminal points of the canal at its construction.

In this regard, the content of the convention was changed, and the new convention provided for the United States only the right of free passage through a canal with a built one, with the obligation of the United States to guarantee the neutrality of the canal and the protection of the sovereignty of Nicaragua with respect to the territories adjacent to the canal, as well as the ports that will serve its final points.

The Convention also included a reservation that the same rights should be granted to other countries, since they would have concluded similar agreements with Nicaragua. But this convention has not been ratified by the United States. In order to eliminate the aggravation of relations between the USA and Great Britain that continued to grow in 1850, the so-called so-called Clayton-Bulvera Treaty (see). This agreement was to determine the international legal regime of the future channel. He obliged each of the contracting states not to subordinate the channel to its exclusive control. The conditions for using the channel should have been the same for both US and UK citizens, as well as for citizens of other states who have assumed similar obligations with them.

In accordance with the Clayton-Boulevard Treaty, the United States entered into an agreement with Nicaragua in 1867, by virtue of which they received the right of free transit with the obligation to protect the neutrality of the channel and the sovereignty of Nicaragua. A condition identical in content was included in the trade agreement between Nicaragua and Great Britain in 1860.

On the other hand, the provisions contained in the Clayton-Bulver Treaty were reproduced in agreements concluded with Nicaragua by Spain in 1850, France in 1859 and Italy in 1868.

In the future, however, US diplomatic activity turned to the Panama version of the canal construction. In 1869 and 1870, the United States, in addition to the agreement of 1846, attempted to conclude an agreement with Colombia, and the distinguishing feature of the draft agreement of 1870 was that the channel should remain permanently open for military vessels only in the USA and Colombia, and the military vessels of the states with them in war, should not have been allowed into the canal. In 1878, the Colombian government granted a concession for the construction of the Panama Canal to a society organized in France, headed by Lesseps, who completed the construction of the Suez Canal.

The concession law declared the neutrality of the channel, the free passage of merchant ships of all flags even during the war, the free passage of military ships of the United States and Colombia at all times, with the closure, however, of the channel for military ships of other states during the war, if only the right of passage military courts of the respective state during the war will not be provided for by the agreement of such a state with Colombia. Considering that the United States in this connection may encounter the influence of non-American states on the Panama Canal, the US Department of State in 1881 instructed its ambassadors in London, Paris, Berlin and Vienna to declare to the respective governments that the neutrality of the Panama Canal is guaranteed by the United States and that an attempt to establish an additional guarantee such neutrality by agreement of European states among themselves will be considered by the United States as unfriendly in relation to their share. The consequence of this diplomatic speech by the United States was a reminder from Great Britain about the provisions of the Clayton-Bulver Treaty of 1850. The diplomatic correspondence that began then continued until 1883, but did not lead to any results.

The United States returned to the question of the said treaty again in 1899, after the successful end of the war with Spain, during which the United States further strengthened the belief that the constructed canal should be under exclusive control of the United States. The original Anglo-American agreement, concluded in 1900 and containing a reference - as a basis - to the provisions of the 1888 convention regarding the Suez Canal, did not receive the approval of the US Senate, and in connection with this a Gay Punsfot agreement was concluded (see) approved by both the US and the UK. By virtue of this agreement, the Clayton-Bulwer Agreement was canceled and the US rights to build the canal, manage, operate and ensure safety along its entire length were recognized; on the other hand, the agreement stipulated that the channel should be open to merchant and military vessels of all flags, without, however, indicating that the obligation to keep the channel open covers both peacetime and wartime. Long before the conclusion of the aforementioned agreement, namely in 1888, the French society of the Panama Canal went bankrupt.

The new society, which took on the continuation of the construction of the canal, entered into negotiations with the United States regarding the transfer of its concession and completed construction, and in 1902 a corresponding agreement was concluded providing for the payment of US $ 40 million to the community. After that, the United States remained to regulate its relationship with Colombia, however, the latter in August 1903 refused to ratify the agreement signed by its representatives with US representatives at the beginning of that year (see<<Гей-Эррана договор>>).

The consequence of this failure was the so-called. The "Panama Revolution", as a result of which Panama with the direct support of the United States, separated from Colombia and proclaimed itself an independent republic, immediately received recognition from the United States (see Buno-Varilla). 18. XI 1903 followed by the conclusion of the Gay - Buno-Varigli agreement (see) between the United States and the Panama Republic, by virtue of which the latter ceded to the USA the eternal time the right to build and operate the canal. Further, to protect the canal, the United States received the right to use its armed forces, as well as to build defensive fortifications.

The possibility of unhindered use of the Panama Canal for shipping friendly countries was reaffirmed by the US President in 1904; 24. The law on the opening and operation of the canal and on the management of the canal zone was issued on VIII 1912, and on 9. VII 1914 were issued - in development of the law 1912-rules on navigation on the canal and when approaching it. The very opening of the canal took place on 16. VIII 1914. The boundaries of the canal zone were clarified by agreement between the United States and Panama on 2. IX 1914.

During the First World War, before the United States entered it, by virtue of a proclamation issued by the United States 13. XI 1914, unhindered passage through the channel of merchant and military ships of the warring states was allowed; after the US entered the war on the basis of the proclamation of 23. V 1917, enemy trading and military vessels were denied the right to use the channel. The security of the Panama Canal was further provided for in the friendship and cooperation agreement concluded between the United States and Panama in 1936, and in the notes attached thereto. The outbreak of World War II caused a proclamation of 5. IX 1939 regarding the observance of neutrality in the Panama Canal zone and a number of resolutions (from 5. IX 1939, from 25. III 1940 and from 9. VII 1940) related to this. With regard to the passage through the canal of vessels captured as a prize, the passage through the canal at the end of 1939 of the German vessel Düsseldorf, which had a British prize crew on board, deserves to be marked. The passage of this ship was complicated by the fact that the Germans made an attempt to land in the area of \u200b\u200bthe Panama Canal a marine agent on board the ship under the pretext of his illness. However, after the simulation of the disease was established in a hospital in Panama, the alleged patient was transferred, despite German protests, to the British vice consul and delivered to Bermuda on a Canadian destroyer.

The terms of the agreement on the transfer of rights to the Panama Canal to the US government actually granted the right to intervene in the internal affairs of Panama, to control foreign policy. And this opportunity has been used more than once. For example, throughout the entire 20th century, protests against the American presence, discrimination against Panamanian workers, and the plight of the people have flared up in Panama from time to time. But the authorities of Panama were not particularly worried about such protests, because there is always such a serious northern neighbor at hand, ready to come to the rescue of pacifying the fraternal people. So, with the help of the American military, the performances of 1916, 1918, 1921, 1923.1925, 1932, 1942, 1951, 1959, 1964 were suppressed.

From time to time, the 1903 agreement was revised, rents changed, Panama was given some rights to manage the canal. But it was all a drop in the ocean. After all, the US received enormous benefits from the use of the Panama Canal: in addition to the fact that the size of the profits reached $ 100 million per year, the most important thing was the fact that US troops were deployed in Central America, which could freely move around the country and control the entire region .

By the way, the contract of 1903 was signed with many violations, was not translated into Spanish, and under it there is not a single signature of a citizen of Panama. Of course, under the pressure of the Panamanian side, the terms of the contract were periodically revised, but such revisions did not change the essence of the contract - the Americans could continue to feel masters on Panamanian land, which, in turn, caused justified indignation of the Panamanians. For example, an American worker in Panama was paid an order of magnitude higher than for the same amount of work done by a Panamanian, Panamanians were not allowed to trade in the canal area, and American citizens were exempt from taxation.

The history of Latin America cannot be called smooth and calm, which fully applies to Panama. Representatives of the oligarchic circles came to power several times, while many of them raised the issue of channel ownership. But most of them only cared about their own wealth, since the channel brought good profits. Only a few saw in the channel not the source of their income, but the basis for the progressive transformation in Panama. Among such leaders, the first place belongs to Omar Torrijos. It was on the initiative of Torrijos that negotiations were held with the United States, the result of which was the signing of, one might say, a landmark treaty. Omar Torrijos managed to reach an agreement with former then President of the United States Jimmy Carter. According to the agreement concluded in September 1977, Panama acquired 65% of the shares of the Panama Canal, while the remaining 35% remained under the jurisdiction of the United States until 2000.

For the period of the Transitional period, it was decided to create a canal management commission consisting of 5 Americans and 4 Panamanians. Under the agreement, the sphere of Panama’s activities in managing the Panama Canal was to constantly increase every year.

Thus, thanks to the efforts of General Omar Torrijos, Panama has a real opportunity to gain control of the canal. As for Omar Torrijos himself, it must be said that after that he became the national hero of Panama.

On his initiative, reforms were carried out in education (universal primary education was introduced), a new labor code was adopted, according to which the right to a minimum level of wages, strikes, and normal working conditions was enshrined. Some enterprises were also nationalized, new plants were built. The reforms also affected medical care: measures were taken to combat dangerous infectious diseases, including malaria. Also, Torrijos was the first to go closer to the indigenous people of Latin America - the Indians. Changes were made to the electoral system, according to which the people could elect not a political "elite", but a representative from the region, which was more democratic.

Reforms of Torrijos and his overtly negative attitude towards the United States could not leave indifferent the States. Periodically, the United States made attempts to overthrow Omar Torrijos. On one of Torrijos’s trips to Mexico in 1969, a military junta with the support of the CIA prepared a coup, and the general was informed that his return to his homeland was undesirable, but Torrijos nevertheless ventured to return. He was helped by the Panamanian people, who staged a hundred thousand demonstration led by Major Manuel Antonio Noriega and simply drove out the coup.

Thus, the 1969 coup did not take place, but later attempts to overthrow the dangerous enemy continued. On August 31, 1981, General Omar Torrijos dies in a plane crash. The plane in which he flew crashed near the Coclesito airfield. The official version is a “tragic accident”, although the conclusions of the commission investigating the circumstances of the crash confirmed that the plane was in good condition, the weather without a single cloud, and the pilot did not report any problems throughout the flight. By the way, during the summer of 1981 under unclear circumstances, three Latin American leaders died.

By the way, after being the president of Panama after Torrijos, Antonio Noriega also interfered with the Americans. But now they did not stand on ceremony. They simply brought in troops, arrested the president, took him to the United States, accused him of corruption and drug trafficking, and put him in jail, and instead put his puppet and regained control of Panama.

3. Transmission of the Panama Canal

According to the agreement, already in 1979, the United States handed over to Panama a total of 78 different objects in the canal zone, including the strategically important port of Cristobal, the railway, fuel depots, and fire departments.

According to the agreement, the channel receives the status of a state enterprise. It will be managed by the Panama Canal Authority (Autoridad del Canal de Panama), a council of 11 members led by a minister for canal affairs, appointed personally by the president of the republic. The channel’s budget will be independent of Panama’s state budget. The channel remains outside of politics, out of anyone’s interests, free for any nation to go through. Channel personnel are prohibited from participating in strikes or any other actions that could interfere with its operation.

The interests of the parties. You can, of course, talk for a long time about who and what is losing or gaining from the economic point of view the transfer of the canal into Panama’s possession. Some experts (mainly American), for example, argue that Panamanians will not be able to effectively control the channel, because they "do not know how." Therefore, sooner or later they will have to resort to the help of "outsiders." True, the Panamanians have already partially resolved this issue: back in 1997, the Panamanian authorities entered into an agreement with the Hong Kong company Hutchinson Whampoa Ltd to transfer to the company the rights to manage the two main sea ports of the Panama Canal - Balboa, located in the Pacific Ocean near the capital of Panama, and Cristobal, located on the Atlantic coast. Ports and their communications were leased to the company for 25 years with the right to extend the contract for the same period. This agreement was the subject of “particular concern” to Republican Senate Majority Leader Trent Lott, who sent a letter last fall about the growth of the Chinese presence in the canal zone to US Secretary of Defense William Cohen. In a letter, Lott, in particular, emphasized that the US government "allows a scenario to develop in which the vital interests of US security cannot be protected without confrontation with the Chinese Communists."

The economic interests of the United States with the loss of the channel are slightly affected. Technically, the channel is seriously outdated, and significant reconstruction is required to increase its throughput. In particular, so that vessels with a higher carrying capacity can pass through the canal, it is necessary to build another series of locks. And this, according to economists, could cost up to $ 8 billion. According to experts, at least half of the engineering structures require repairs. Moreover, the channel through which only 4% of the global commodity circulation is already carried out, with the increasing efficiency of rail and air transportation, is gradually losing its importance as an important trade route in the global commodity circulation system. The channel is slowly turning into a “local”, Latin American waterway.

But from a strategic point of view, the United States is losing a fairly important bridgehead of its military presence on the Latin American continent. Throughout the century - starting from 1903 - the Americans held a substantial contingent of military personnel (from 10 to 65 thousand people) in the Panama Canal zone, who were engaged not only in maintaining and protecting this merchant water artery. The zone was turned into a practically training center for the American military for service in the specific conditions of the Latin American continent (for example, Fort Sherman military base was the only center for training the military to fight in the jungle, through which up to 100 thousand people passed) , to the intelligence and anti-insurgency operations center. Washington never stood on ceremony with its southern neighbors, shamelessly interfering in their "home" affairs. Let us recall at least the dispersal in 1964 of the demonstrators who supported the return of the Panama Canal and the closure of American military bases (24 people were killed and more than 600 were injured) or the story of the overthrow of General Manuel Antonio Noriega when the 20,000th American landing landed in Panama in 1989 Marines. By the way, it was then that the armed forces of Panama were disbanded, and now only 1,500 policemen provide security for the canal.

It is concern over the ability of the Panamanian authorities to properly protect the canal (according to recent polls, more than 70% of Panamanians do not believe that Panama is capable of protecting the canal and the country's borders in general) and the danger of Panama becoming a transit point for Colombian drug dealers and explains Washington is striving to maintain its military presence in the canal zone, at least in a greatly reduced form.

The long-standing military presence of Americans in the Panama Canal zone made it possible to control the flow of drug smuggling from South America to North. From here, up to 15 thousand sorties of US Air Force reconnaissance planes were carried out annually to control drug smuggling in the region. A couple of years ago, Washington made a proposal to open, after transferring the Panama Canal, to the Howard military base, where the headquarters of the US Southern Command, the international center for combating drug smuggling, was located. Which would mean, in particular, the deployment of 2 thousand American soldiers there. But lengthy negotiations with the Panamanian authorities ultimately failed. Panama was not happy that Washington insisted on including in the agreement on the creation of a center a provision on the right to use the infrastructure of the Howard base not only to combat the illegal drug trade and provisions on providing military units that should have been deployed at the military base with unhindered rights and free from customs and police searches of movement throughout Panama. So now, with the withdrawal from the zone, the Americans are forced to reorient to neighboring countries. Washington has already concluded agreements on a joint "anti-drug" fight with Ecuador, Aruba, Curacao. These countries have pledged to provide their airports for special trades and refueling US military aircraft.

The Panamanian authorities have completely different views of the liberated territories and military bases. So far, the government of Panama does not intend to conclude any agreements providing for the continued military presence of Americans in the country. Moreover, back in mid-October, the President of Panama, Mireia Moscoso (by the way, the widow of the legendary President of Panama, Arnulfo Arias, who became the head of state three times and who was overthrown by the military three times), stated bluntly that Panama’s military relations with the United States would end on December 31. "We no longer need military bases on our territory. Moreover, we do not need centers to combat drug smuggling."

The Panamanian authorities intend to actively develop the canal zone, and not only from the point of view of trade and transport. The government hopes to attract investment and tourists into the canal zone, turn the country into Latin American Singapore.

The military airfield located between the three bases Howard, Cobbe and Farfan has good economic potential. The runway of the airfield - 2,485 meters - the longest in all of Latin America. On the territory of these three bases (more than 5 thousand hectares) there are more than 600 buildings for various purposes, 303.5 thousand square meters of other structures, including more than a thousand residential premises. In general, the infrastructure that the Americans leave to the Panamanians is very rich - each base is a rather well-equipped military camp with residential premises, a school, a hospital, a theater, a fire station, tennis, golf, a swimming pool, a hotel, etc.

Nevertheless, the United States took care in advance to have a legislative mechanism that would allow them to exercise control over the channel. We are talking about two documents - the agreement on the complete neutrality of the Panama Canal, which is an integral part of the Carter-Torrijos agreement, and the so-called de Conchini amendment (in the name of the senator who introduced it) added later to the treaty. Both documents practically give Washington the right at any time to send its troops into the territory of Panama without the consent of the Panamanian authorities. “In accordance with the Treaty on the Permanent Neutrality and Functioning of the Panama Canal, Panama and the United States are responsible for ensuring that the Panama Canal is open and safe for ships of all nations. This means that these countries, in accordance with their constitutional norms, will protect the canal from any threat to the neutrality regime and will have the right to act against any aggression or threat directed against the regime of peaceful transit of ships through the channel. "

According to the agreement on the total neutrality of the channel, the United States receives the right to military intervention "in the event of a threat to the inter-ocean transport route." Formally, the agreement is directed against possible attacks on the channel by drug dealers and paramilitary groups in neighboring Colombia. In fact, the United States, passing the canal to the Panamanian authorities, practically only removes the financial and technical burden of its maintenance, leaving strategic control over the canal behind itself.

Recall that once - in 1989 - the United States took advantage of this "right", almost invading the territory of Panama and overthrowing General Noriega. And nothing will stop them the next time, when the political situation in Panama or in Central America seems to Washington "threatening the national interests of the United States," to introduce into the zone of the Panama Canal thousands of contingents of homesick American soldiers.

The 20-year transitional period expired on December 31, 1999. The entire territory of the Panama Canal passed to the Panamanians, and the United States gave up the latest bases and facilities designed to serve the canal. By the way, at the time of the transfer of the channel, US profits from its channel amounted to about $ 100 million per year, while leases amounted to 1.93 million per year.

Immediately in early 2000, Panama announced a tender for channel management. The tender was won by the Chinese company Hutchison Whampoa, which actually began to control the channel, but already under the control of the Panamanian authorities.

In 2004, Martin Torrijos, son of Omar Tarrijos, became the president of Panama. Martin Torrijos won the 2004 presidential election with the slogan: “Yes, you can!”: Poverty, unemployment, corruption can be defeated. He is a member of the Revolutionary Democratic Party.

Quite a long time ago the idea of \u200b\u200bmodernizing and expanding the canal arose, which would allow vessels with a displacement of up to 170 thousand tons, length up to 440 meters and a draft of up to 18 meters to be passed through the channel, while currently vessels with a displacement of up to 65 thousand tons, length no more than 294 meters and draft up to 12 meters.

To this end, at the initiative of Martin Torrijos, a nationwide referendum was held in 2006, where the people of Panama had to decide whether they want to expand the channel. 79% of the country's citizens supported the expansion of the channel and approved the initiative of President Torrijos.

Since 2006, work has been ongoing aimed at expanding the channel. In particular, the most important issue remains the question of the funds that are needed to carry out such ambitious work, and they need a lot - $ 5.2 billion. Nevertheless, the leadership of Panama took such a risk and launched a campaign to accumulate cash. First of all, China is most interested in expanding and improving the channel, which needs not only sales markets, but also a quick and convenient delivery of raw materials, in particular oil. China is ready to cooperate with Panama and assist it in the implementation of the canal expansion project. The weight of China around the world is quite serious, and Panama, through it, can find itself a serious partner in economic relations, which, accordingly, will entail cooperation in politics.

Also, despite the crisis, in October 2008, a series of negotiations were held with world creditors regarding raising money for the expansion of the Panama Canal. For example, among the lenders who are ready to allocate funds, the Japan Bank for International Cooperation stands out, which will allocate 800 million dollars, the European Investment Bank (European Investment Bank) - 500 million dollars, the Inter-American Development Bank (Inter -American Development Bank) - $ 400 million, Andean Development Corporation and Andean Development Corporation - $ 300 million each. These are clear indications that the current trend is clearly visible. to strengthen the position of Panama, formerly most of all, due to active cooperation with the countries of Latin America and Western Europe, China, and Japan.

Heads of state and famous politicians from Latin America, the USA and Europe gathered at the channel’s broadcasting ceremony.

Therefore, many projects of competing channels were born, for example, in Nicaragua or Colombia.

Attention! Full post version - http://infoglaz.ru/?p\u003d27313

We recall the beginning of this story: which exist

Dug more than 100 years ago, the Panama Canal has long been in need of modernization. Its throughput left much to be desired: ships sometimes had to wait several days to wait for their turn. In addition, centuries-old locks did not match the size and tonnage of modern ships.

Work on updating the channel began in 2007. Over 9 years, the width of the locks was increased from 34 to 55 meters, the depth - from 12 to 18 meters. As a result of the reconstruction, for which $ 5.4 billion was spent, the capacity of the artificial waterway increased from 300 to 600 million tons per year, and most importantly, the canal was adapted for tankers carrying liquefied gas. The maximum displacement of ships increased to 150,000 tons.

Globally

The opening of the Panama Canal 2.0 is a global event. At least, this is how Panamanian authorities position him - heads of state and government from around the world are invited to the ceremony. True, only Latin American presidents confirmed their presence: Michelle Bachelet (Chile), Luis Guillermo Solis (Costa Rica), Daniel Medina (Dominican Republic), Juan Orlando Hernandez (Honduras) and Horacio Cartes (Paraguay). Also, 62 delegations from different countries and representatives of international organizations will arrive in Panama.

The President of Panama, Juan Carlos Varela, sent an invitation to Vladimir Putin, but this trip was not included in the schedule of the head of Russia.

US Interest Area

The United States will become the main beneficiary of the Panama Canal reboot. It was they who at one time were most interested in its construction. And in 1902, having bought the canal’s assets from bankrupt Frenchmen, they “agreed” with the Panamanian authorities and for 10 years successfully dug the way from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean, paying for this about $ 400 million and more than 5.5 thousand lives of workers.

The United States completely owned the channel until 1999. But after numerous protests against the American presence, they transferred it, finally, under the control of Panama - the state agency of the Panama Canal Administration. True, in reality, the United States continues to consider the channel, as well as the entire territory of Panama, a zone of its vital interests. In addition, as Mikhail Belyat, a researcher at the Russian State Humanitarian University, an expert on Latin America, said in an interview with RT, “this channel has a lot of money from American shareholders.”

Economic effect

In anticipation of the inauguration of the renewed Panama Canal, The Wall Street Journal wrote that widening the waterway could be of great importance to world trade in the long run. Of course, first of all, American companies will get an advantage, because through the modernized channel the USA will be able to quickly deliver oil and gas from the Gulf of Mexico to anywhere in the world.

• Reuters

However, there is another opinion. The expansion of the canal was planned at the peak of shipping, now the situation has changed, so the economic effect of modernizing the canal is not obvious. But optimistic experts predict an increase in sea freight traffic by at least 240% by 2030.

Monopoly game

The economic situation is volatile, but the US monopoly on the Panama Canal seems to be constant. And this does not suit many. First of all, China and Venezuela, as one of the main exporters of oil in the region. China has already leased two ports at the entrance and exit of the canal, but still cannot feel calm and be completely sure that the transit of its goods at one point will not be blocked.

The second minus of the Panama Canal: even in its updated version, it is not wide enough and deep for the latest tankers. And finally, its lack of alternativeness contradicts the principles of competition.

These factors led to the idea of \u200b\u200ban understudy channel.

Nicaraguan understudy

Everything new is well forgotten old. The idea of \u200b\u200bbuilding a canal on the territory of Nicaragua appeared in the 16th century and belonged to the Spanish king Charles V. In those distant times, they were planning to lay a canal through Lake Nicaragua and the San Juan River, cutting an 80-meter isthmus that separated the lake from the ocean. The Americans originally wanted to implement the same scenario, and even the North American Company was formed to build the Nicaraguan Canal. But in the end, the scales tipped in favor of Panama.

The idea of \u200b\u200bthe Nicaraguan Canal was reborn in the 21st century. The private Hong Kong company HKND Group, led by Chinese billionaire Wang Jin and the government of Nicaragua, have agreed to build an understudy channel. The construction of the century was launched in 2014.

• www.youtube.com

For all articles

According to the project, the Nicaraguan Canal in all respects should outperform its Panamanian competitor: length - 286 kilometers, depth - about 30 meters, width - from 226 to 530 meters, ship displacement - up to 270,000 tons.

And importantly, the emergence of the Nicaraguan Canal will significantly reduce transit prices and port charges on the coast. “According to the existing project, two powerful ports will appear at the inlet and outlet of the canal, they will compete with the Panama ports,” Mikhail Belyat, researcher at the Russian State Humanitarian University, an expert on Latin America, said in an interview with RT. - Accordingly, pricing for the use of the canal and port services along the coast will decrease. This does not suit the United States. ”

Proetcontra

The construction of the canal is a vital matter not only for all project participants. Nicaragua receives economic and political preferences: the country's GDP will double, and the geopolitical significance will radically change. China, having built the Nicaraguan Canal, has seriously and permanently come to the American continent, and is becoming one of the main players in the region, not to mention the economic benefits - it is not by chance that Chinese investors show great interest in the project. The countries of the Asia-Pacific region and Latin America are also interested in the emergence of an alternative route from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. But for the United States, according to Mikhail Belyat, “it will be a geostrategic bomb. China comes to the American continent. And so there his presence is obvious, in any Latin American country you will find a Chinese trace. But the canal is a huge splinter in the immediate vicinity of the US borders. ”

Do we need this?

China and Nicaragua cannot but be aware of all the risks arising from the neighborhood with the discontented States. Therefore, by any means they are trying to attract Russia to participate in the project in order to ensure its safety. In 2015, Daniel Ortega took the first step - he signed an agreement with Russia, according to which Russian warships can be in the territorial waters of Nicaragua. And recently, the first batch of 20 modernized T-72B1 tanks was delivered to Nicaragua. In total, under the contract, Nicaraguans will receive 50 armored vehicles by the beginning of 2017.

“China needs Russia to take part in this project under any guise,” said Oleg Valetsky, a military expert at the Center for Strategic Market Studies, in an interview with RT. “The Chinese are well aware that this will be a blow to US interests with all the ensuing consequences.” Moreover, precedents in history have already existed. “The United States carried out several interventions in Nicaragua to build such a canal,” says Mikhail Belyat. “And in the twentieth century they carried out interventions so that the canal was not built in Nicaragua, because it is becoming an alternative to Panama.”

Whether Russia needs to take part in the construction of the century is a debatable question. A number of experts believe that it is not worth it yet. The economic benefits are dubious, and the geopolitical ones are unpredictable.

Land mine

The start of operation of the Nicaraguan Canal was scheduled for 2019, and the full completion of construction - in 2029. However, first, farmers were concerned about the loss of their land, and the construction was postponed for six months. Then, as usual, environmentalists were indignant, and again the delay. Finally, all controversial issues were settled and then the implementation of the project was again postponed until the end of 2016. As an explanation, HKND Group stated financial difficulties.

But the reasons for the permanent freezing of the Nicaraguan Canal most likely lie in the field of politics. November 6, the election of the President of Nicaragua, and November 8 - the President of the United States. And the future fate of the channel largely depends on their results.

“Ortega is running for a third term,” says Mikhail Belyat. “He has little chance.” We have to withstand the pressure of the opposition, supported by the United States. If a liberal president comes to power, the terms of the agreement on the Nicaraguan Canal can be revised. ”

• Reuters

In turn, Hillary Clinton, according to experts, will not stand on ceremony with Chinese ambitions and will act extremely harshly.

So we will find out very soon whether to be the Nicaraguan Canal, but for now the sea powers will have to be content with the renewed Panama.

Ilya Oganjanov

   Panama Canal